Organic side streams (bioproducts) as substrate for black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) intended as animal feed: chemical safety issues
Shanmugam Alagappan A B , Duncan Rowland C , Rob Barwell D , Daniel Cozzolino A , Deirdre Mikkelsen A E , Sandra M. Olarte Mantilla A , Peter James
F , Olympia Yarger G and Louwrens Hoffman A B H *
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia.
B Fight Food Waste Cooperative Research Centre, Wine Innovation Central Building Level 1, Waite Campus, Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia.
C Stock Feed Manufacturers Council of Australia, PO Box 151, Curtin, ACT 2605, Australia.
D Animal Health Australia, 95 Northbourne Avenue, Turner, ACT 2612, Australia.
E School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia.
F Centre for Animal Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia.
G Goterra, 14 Arnott Street, Hume, ACT 2620, Australia.
H Department of Animal Sciences, University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa.
Animal Production Science 62(17) 1639-1651 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN22155
Submitted: 21 April 2022 Accepted: 21 July 2022 Published: 19 August 2022
© 2022 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
The growing world population accompanied by urbanisation and improved economies has resulted in an increased demand for diets rich in animal proteins. The rearing of livestock by existing practices is also becoming increasingly difficult due to changing environmental conditions. The use of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) grown on organic side streams (bioproducts) as feed for animals presents a sustainable alternative to conventional feed ingredients. The nutritional and compositional profile of BSFL reared on organic side streams and their potential to be used as animal feed has been extensively explored. However, little information is available on the chemical safety of BSFL reared on organic side streams. This review addresses the chemical safety hazards of BSFL reared on substrates spiked with different chemical contaminants, including heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. BSFL were observed to excrete mycotoxins and were able to reduce the concentration of pesticides and pharmaceutical compounds in the substrate. Certain heavy metals were found to be accumulated in BSFL when grown on spiked substrate. Initial studies have also indicated that the growth parameters and composition of BSFL are not altered by the presence of microplastics and organic pollutants in the substrate. Information about these feed-safety issues will assist in developing regulatory frameworks and appropriate processing methods to mitigate these hazards, thereby providing a framework of risks for the commercialisation of BSFL destined for animal feed.
Keywords: Australian legislation, black soldier fly larvae, heavy metals, mycotoxins, organic side streams, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, safety.
References
Alagappan S, Rowland D, Barwell R, Mantilla SMO, Mikkelsen D, James P, Yarger O, Hoffman LC (2021) Legislative landscape of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as feed. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 8, 343–355.| Legislative landscape of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as feed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Banks IJ, Gibson WT, Cameron MM (2014) Growth rates of black soldier fly larvae fed on fresh human faeces and their implication for improving sanitation. Tropical Medicine & International Health 19, 14–22.
| Growth rates of black soldier fly larvae fed on fresh human faeces and their implication for improving sanitation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barbi S, Macavei LI, Fuso A, Luparelli AV, Caligiani A, Ferrari AM, Maistrello L, Montorsi M (2020) Valorization of seasonal agri-food leftovers through insects. Science of The Total Environment 709, 136209
| Valorization of seasonal agri-food leftovers through insects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Belghit I, Waagbø R, Lock E-J, Liland NS (2019) Insect-based diets high in lauric acid reduce liver lipids in freshwater Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture Nutrition 25, 343–357.
| Insect-based diets high in lauric acid reduce liver lipids in freshwater Atlantic salmon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bennett JW, Klich M (2003) Mycotoxins. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 16, 497–516.
| Mycotoxins.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Biancarosa I, Liland NS, Biemans D, Araujo P, Bruckner CG, Waagbø R, Torstensen BE, Lock E-J, Amlund H (2018) Uptake of heavy metals and arsenic in black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae grown on seaweed-enriched media. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 98, 2176–2183.
| Uptake of heavy metals and arsenic in black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae grown on seaweed-enriched media.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Biancarosa I, Sele V, Belghit I, Ørnsrud R, Lock E-J, Amlund H (2019) Replacing fish meal with insect meal in the diet of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) does not impact the amount of contaminants in the feed and it lowers accumulation of arsenic in the fillet. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 36, 1191–1205.
| Replacing fish meal with insect meal in the diet of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) does not impact the amount of contaminants in the feed and it lowers accumulation of arsenic in the fillet.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bianco A, Budroni M, Zara S, Mannazzu I, Fancello F, Zara G (2020) The role of microorganisms on biotransformation of brewers’ spent grain. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 104, 8661–8678.
| The role of microorganisms on biotransformation of brewers’ spent grain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bień J, Nowak D (2014) Biological composition of sewage sludge in the aspect of threats to the natural environment. Archives of Environmental Protection 40, 79–86.
| Biological composition of sewage sludge in the aspect of threats to the natural environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boland MJ, Rae AN, Vereijken JM, Meuwissen MPM, Fischer ARH, van Boekel MAJS, Rutherfurd SM, Gruppen H, Moughan PJ, Hendriks WH (2013) The future supply of animal-derived protein for human consumption. Trends in Food Science & Technology 29, 62–73.
| The future supply of animal-derived protein for human consumption.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bosch G, Fels-Klerx HJvd, Rijk TCd, Oonincx DGAB (2017) Aflatoxin B1 tolerance and accumulation in black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) and yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). Toxins 9, 185
| Aflatoxin B1 tolerance and accumulation in black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) and yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bożym M, Florczak I, Zdanowska P, Wojdalski J, Klimkiewicz M (2015) An analysis of metal concentrations in food wastes for biogas production. Renewable Energy 77, 467–472.
| An analysis of metal concentrations in food wastes for biogas production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cai M, Hu R, Zhang K, Ma S, Zheng L, Yu Z, Zhang J (2018) Resistance of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae to combined heavy metals and potential application in municipal sewage sludge treatment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25, 1559–1567.
| Resistance of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae to combined heavy metals and potential application in municipal sewage sludge treatment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Camenzuli L, Van Dam R, De Rijk T, Andriessen R, Van Schelt J, Van der Fels-Klerx HJ (2018) Tolerance and excretion of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A by Alphitobius diaperinus and Hermetia illucens from contaminated substrates. Toxins 10, 91
| Tolerance and excretion of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A by Alphitobius diaperinus and Hermetia illucens from contaminated substrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Charlton AJ, Dickinson M, Wakefield ME, Fitches E, Kenis M, Han R, Zhu F, Kone N, Grant M, Devic E, Bruggeman G, Prior R, Smith R (2015) Exploring the chemical safety of fly larvae as a source of protein for animal feed. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1, 7–16.
| Exploring the chemical safety of fly larvae as a source of protein for animal feed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cho S, Kim C-H, Kim M-J, Chung H (2020) Effects of microplastics and salinity on food waste processing by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. Journal of Ecology and Environment 44, 7
| Effects of microplastics and salinity on food waste processing by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Department of Primary Industries and Regions-South Australia (2013) ‘South Australia livestock regulations 2013 under the livestock act 1997.’ (Department of Primary Industries and Regions-South Australia)
Dobermann D, Swift JA, Field LM (2017) Opportunities and hurdles of edible insects for food and feed. Nutrition Bulletin 42, 293–308.
| Opportunities and hurdles of edible insects for food and feed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Domingues CHdF, Borges JAR, Ruviaro CF, Gomes Freire Guidolin D, Rosa Mauad Carrijo J (2020) Understanding the factors influencing consumer willingness to accept the use of insects to feed poultry, cattle, pigs and fish in Brazil. PLoS ONE 15, e0224059
| Understanding the factors influencing consumer willingness to accept the use of insects to feed poultry, cattle, pigs and fish in Brazil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gao Q, Wang X, Wang W, Lei C, Zhu F (2017) Influences of chromium and cadmium on the development of black soldier fly larvae. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 24, 8637–8644.
| Influences of chromium and cadmium on the development of black soldier fly larvae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gao Z, Wang W, Lu X, Zhu F, Liu W, Wang X, Lei C (2019) Bioconversion performance and life table of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) on fermented maize straw. Journal of Cleaner Production 230, 974–980.
| Bioconversion performance and life table of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) on fermented maize straw.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Guiné RPF, Correia P, Coelho C, Costa CA (2021) The role of edible insects to mitigate challenges for sustainability. Open Agriculture 6, 24–36.
| The role of edible insects to mitigate challenges for sustainability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gulsunoglu Z, Aravind S, Bai Y, Wang L, Kutcher HR, Tanaka T (2019) Deoxynivalenol (DON) accumulation and nutrient recovery in black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) fed wheat infected with Fusarium spp. Fermentation 5, 83
| Deoxynivalenol (DON) accumulation and nutrient recovery in black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) fed wheat infected with Fusarium spp.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heuel M, Kreuzer M, Sandrock C, Leiber F, Mathys A, Gold M, Zurbrügg C, Gangnat IDM, Terranova M (2021) Transfer of lauric and myristic acid from black soldier fly larval lipids to egg yolk lipids of hens is low. Lipids 56, 423–435.
| Transfer of lauric and myristic acid from black soldier fly larval lipids to egg yolk lipids of hens is low.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hołyńska-Iwan I, Szewczyk-Golec K (2020) Pyrethroids: how they affect human and animal health? Medicina 56, 582
| Pyrethroids: how they affect human and animal health?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Imathiu S (2020) Benefits and food safety concerns associated with consumption of edible insects. NFS Journal 18, 1–11.
| Benefits and food safety concerns associated with consumption of edible insects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Insect Protein Association of Australia (2020) Insects for livestock feed. Available at https://www.insectproteinassoc.com/insects-as-feed
Ismail BP, Senaratne-Lenagala L, Stube A, Brackenridge A (2020) Protein demand: review of plant and animal proteins used in alternative protein product development and production. Animal Frontiers 10, 53–63.
| Protein demand: review of plant and animal proteins used in alternative protein product development and production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jepson PC, Murray K, Bach O, Bonilla MA, Neumeister L (2020) Selection of pesticides to reduce human and environmental health risks: a global guideline and minimum pesticides list. The Lancet Planetary Health 4, e56–e63.
| Selection of pesticides to reduce human and environmental health risks: a global guideline and minimum pesticides list.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kadir AA, Azhari NW, Jamaludin SN (2017) Evaluation of physical, chemical and heavy metal concentration of food waste composting. In ‘MATEC web of conferences’. 103, 05014. (EDP Sciences). https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201710305014
Kim T-K, Yong HI, Kim Y-B, Kim H-W, Choi Y-S (2019) Edible insects as a protein source: a review of public perception, processing technology, and research trends. Food Science of Animal Resources 39, 521–540.
| Edible insects as a protein source: a review of public perception, processing technology, and research trends.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kim YB, Kim D-H, Jeong S-B, Lee J-W, Kim T-H, Lee H-G, Lee K-W (2020) Black soldier fly larvae oil as an alternative fat source in broiler nutrition. Poultry Science 99, 3133–3143.
| Black soldier fly larvae oil as an alternative fat source in broiler nutrition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kolasa-Więcek A (2013) Modeling greenhouse gas emissions from livestock farming in Poland with the use of stepwise multiple regression. Journal of Research and Applications in Agricultural Engineering 58, 78–85.
Kroeckel S, Harjes A-GE, Roth I, Katz H, Wuertz S, Susenbeth A, Schulz C (2012) When a turbot catches a fly: evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as fish meal substitute – growth performance and chitin degradation in juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture 364-365, 345–352.
| When a turbot catches a fly: evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as fish meal substitute – growth performance and chitin degradation in juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lähteenmäki-Uutela A, Grmelová N (2016) European law on insects in food and feed. European Food and Feed Law Review 11, 2–8.
Lähteenmäki-Uutela A, Grmelová N, Hénault-Ethier L, Deschamps M-H, Vandenberg GW, Zhao A, Zhang Y, Yang B, Nemane V (2017) Insects as food and feed: laws of the European Union, United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, and China. European Food and Feed Law Review 12, 22–36.
Lalander C, Senecal J, Gros Calvo M, Ahrens L, Josefsson S, Wiberg K, Vinnerås B (2016) Fate of pharmaceuticals and pesticides in fly larvae composting. Science of The Total Environment 565, 279–286.
| Fate of pharmaceuticals and pesticides in fly larvae composting.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lalander C, Diener S, Zurbrügg C, Vinnerås B (2019) Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Journal of Cleaner Production 208, 211–219.
| Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Li S, Ji H, Zhang B, Tian J, Zhou J, Yu H (2016) Influence of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae oil on growth performance, body composition, tissue fatty acid composition and lipid deposition in juvenile Jian carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian). Aquaculture 465, 43–52.
| Influence of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae oil on growth performance, body composition, tissue fatty acid composition and lipid deposition in juvenile Jian carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mei H, Li C, Li X, Hu B, Lu L, Tomberlin JK, Hu W (2022) Characteristics of tylosin and enrofloxacin degradation in swine manure digested by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae. Environmental Pollution 293, 118495
| Characteristics of tylosin and enrofloxacin degradation in swine manure digested by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Meijer N, de Rijk T, van Loon JJA, Zoet L, van der Fels-Klerx HJ (2021) Effects of insecticides on mortality, growth and bioaccumulation in black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. PLoS ONE 16, e0249362
| Effects of insecticides on mortality, growth and bioaccumulation in black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mohd-Noor S-N, Wong C-Y, Lim J-W, Mah-Hussin M-I-A, Uemura Y, Lam M-K, Ramli A, Bashir MJK, Tham L (2017) Optimization of self-fermented period of waste coconut endosperm destined to feed black soldier fly larvae in enhancing the lipid and protein yields. Renewable Energy 111, 646–654.
| Optimization of self-fermented period of waste coconut endosperm destined to feed black soldier fly larvae in enhancing the lipid and protein yields.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murray MH, Hill J, Whyte P, St. Clair CC (2016) Urban compost attracts coyotes, contains toxins, and may promote disease in urban-adapted wildlife. EcoHealth 13, 285–292.
| Urban compost attracts coyotes, contains toxins, and may promote disease in urban-adapted wildlife.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries (2017) Biosecurity regulation 2017. Available at http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/nsw176275.pdf
Nguyen TTX, Tomberlin JK, Vanlaerhoven S (2013) Influence of resources on Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. Journal of Medical Entomology 50, 898–906.
| Influence of resources on Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nguyen TT, Rosello C, Bélanger R, Ratti C (2020) Fate of residual pesticides in fruit and vegetable waste (FVW) processing. Foods 9, 1468
| Fate of residual pesticides in fruit and vegetable waste (FVW) processing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nolet S (2020) Catalysing a $10m Australian insect industry. Available at https://www.agrifutures.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/20-059.pdf
Nyakeri EM, Ogola HJO, Ayieko MA, Amimo FA (2017) Valorisation of organic waste material: growth performance of wild black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) reared on different organic wastes. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 3, 193–202.
| Valorisation of organic waste material: growth performance of wild black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) reared on different organic wastes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oonincx DGAB, van Broekhoven S, van Huis A, van Loon JJA (2015a) Feed conversion, survival and development, and composition of four insect species on diets composed of food by-products. PLoS ONE 10, e0144601
| Feed conversion, survival and development, and composition of four insect species on diets composed of food by-products.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oonincx DGAB, van Huis A, van Loon JJA (2015b) Nutrient utilisation by black soldier flies fed with chicken, pig, or cow manure. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1, 131–139.
| Nutrient utilisation by black soldier flies fed with chicken, pig, or cow manure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Piacentini KC, Rocha LO, Savi GD, Carnielli-Queiroz L, De Carvalho Fontes L, Correa B (2019) Assessment of toxigenic fusarium species and their mycotoxins in brewing barley grains. Toxins 11, 31
| Assessment of toxigenic fusarium species and their mycotoxins in brewing barley grains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pieterse E, Erasmus SW, Uushona T, Hoffman LC (2019) Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) pre-pupae meal as a dietary protein source for broiler production ensures a tasty chicken with standard meat quality for every pot. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 99, 893–903.
| Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) pre-pupae meal as a dietary protein source for broiler production ensures a tasty chicken with standard meat quality for every pot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Purschke B, Scheibelberger R, Axmann S, Adler A, Jäger H (2017) Impact of substrate contamination with mycotoxins, heavy metals and pesticides on the growth performance and composition of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) for use in the feed and food value chain. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 34, 1410–1420.
| Impact of substrate contamination with mycotoxins, heavy metals and pesticides on the growth performance and composition of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) for use in the feed and food value chain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Queensland Goverment (2017) Biosecurity act 2016: schedule 2 – maximum permitted levels of contaminants. Available at https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/pdf/inforce/2017-07-01/sl-2016-0075
Queensland Goverment (2019) ‘Laws against supplying and feeding prohibited feed to poultry.’ (Queensland Government)
Ravi HK, Degrou A, Costil J, Trespeuch C, Chemat F, Vian MA (2020) Effect of devitalization techniques on the lipid, protein, antioxidant, and chitin fractions of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. European Food Research and Technology 246, 2549–2568.
| Effect of devitalization techniques on the lipid, protein, antioxidant, and chitin fractions of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Romano N, Fischer H (2021) Microplastics affected black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) pupation and short chain fatty acids. Journal of Applied Entomology 145, 731–736.
| Microplastics affected black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) pupation and short chain fatty acids.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rundberget T, Skaar I, Flåøyen A (2004) The presence of Penicillium and Penicillium mycotoxins in food wastes. International Journal of Food Microbiology 90, 181–188.
| The presence of Penicillium and Penicillium mycotoxins in food wastes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Santos Pereira C, Cunha SC, Fernandes JO (2019) Prevalent mycotoxins in animal feed: occurrence and analytical methods. Toxins 11, 290
| Prevalent mycotoxins in animal feed: occurrence and analytical methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ščančar J, Milačič R, Stražar M, Burica O (2000) Total metal concentrations and partitioning of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni and Zn in sewage sludge. Science of The Total Environment 250, 9–19.
| Total metal concentrations and partitioning of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni and Zn in sewage sludge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schmitt E, Belghit I, Johansen J, Leushuis R, Lock E-J, Melsen D, Kathirampatti Ramasamy Shanmugam R, Van Loon J, Paul A (2019) Growth and safety assessment of feed streams for black soldier fly larvae: a case study with aquaculture sludge. Animals 9, 189
| Growth and safety assessment of feed streams for black soldier fly larvae: a case study with aquaculture sludge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schrögel P, Wätjen W (2019) Insects for food and feed-safety aspects related to mycotoxins and metals. Foods 8, 288
| Insects for food and feed-safety aspects related to mycotoxins and metals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shumo M, Osuga IM, Khamis FM, Tanga CM, Fiaboe KKM, Subramanian S, Ekesi S, van Huis A, Borgemeister C (2019) The nutritive value of black soldier fly larvae reared on common organic waste streams in Kenya. Scientific Reports 9, 10110
| The nutritive value of black soldier fly larvae reared on common organic waste streams in Kenya.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Song W, Guo M (2014) Residual veterinary pharmaceuticals in animal manures and their environmental behaviors in soils. In ‘Applied manure and nutrient chemistry for sustainable agriculture and environment’. (Eds Z He, H Zhang) pp. 23–52. (Springer)
Spranghers T, Ottoboni M, Klootwijk C, Ovyn A, Deboosere S, De Meulenaer B, Michiels J, Eeckhout M, De Clercq P, De Smet S (2017) Nutritional composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae reared on different organic waste substrates. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 97, 2594–2600.
| Nutritional composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae reared on different organic waste substrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tacconi C, Cucina M, Zadra C, Gigliotti G, Pezzolla D (2019) Plant nutrients recovery from aflatoxin B1 contaminated corn through co-composting. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7, 103046
| Plant nutrients recovery from aflatoxin B1 contaminated corn through co-composting.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Taube J, Vorkamp K, Förster M, Herrmann R (2002) Pesticide residues in biological waste. Chemosphere 49, 1357–1365.
| Pesticide residues in biological waste.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tomberlin JK, Sheppard DC, Joyce JA (2002) Susceptibility of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae and adults to four insecticides. Journal of Economic Entomology 95, 598–602.
| Susceptibility of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae and adults to four insecticides.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van der Fels-Klerx HJ, Camenzuli L, van der Lee MK, Oonincx DGAB (2016) Uptake of cadmium, lead and arsenic by Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens from contaminated substrates. PLoS ONE 11, e0166186
| Uptake of cadmium, lead and arsenic by Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens from contaminated substrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van der Fels-Klerx HJ, Camenzuli L, Belluco S, Meijer N, Ricci A (2018) Food safety issues related to uses of insects for feeds and foods. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 17, 1172–1183.
| Food safety issues related to uses of insects for feeds and foods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van Huis A, Oonincx DGAB (2017) The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 37, 43
| The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van Huis A, Van Itterbeeck J, Klunder H, Mertens E, Halloran A, Muir G, Vantomme P (2013) ‘Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security.’ (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)
Verma R, Vijayalakshmy K, Chaudhiry V (2018) Detrimental impacts of heavy metals on animal reproduction: a review. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 6, 27–30.
Weng H-X, Ma X-W, Fu F-X, Zhang J-J, Liu Z, Tian L-X, Liu C (2014) Transformation of heavy metal speciation during sludge drying: mechanistic insights. Journal of Hazardous Materials 265, 96–103.
| Transformation of heavy metal speciation during sludge drying: mechanistic insights.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Western Australia Department of Primary Industries and Regional development (2013) Biosecurity and agriculture management (Agriculture standards) regulations 2013. Available at http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/wa130363.pdf
Wohde M, Berkner S, Junker T, Konradi S, Schwarz L, Düring R-A (2016) Occurrence and transformation of veterinary pharmaceuticals and biocides in manure: a literature review. Environmental Sciences Europe 28, 23
| Occurrence and transformation of veterinary pharmaceuticals and biocides in manure: a literature review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woods MJ, Cullere M, Van Emmenes L, Vincenzi S, Pieterse E, Hoffman LC, Zotte AD (2019) Hermetia illucens larvae reared on different substrates in broiler quail diets: effect on apparent digestibility, feed-choice and growth performance. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 5, 89–98.
| Hermetia illucens larvae reared on different substrates in broiler quail diets: effect on apparent digestibility, feed-choice and growth performance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wu N, Wang X, Xu X, Cai R, Xie S (2020) Effects of heavy metals on the bioaccumulation, excretion and gut microbiome of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 192, 110323
| Effects of heavy metals on the bioaccumulation, excretion and gut microbiome of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Youssef NH, Al-Huqail AA, Ali HM, Abdelsalam NR, Sabra MA (2020) The role of Serendipita indica and Lactobacilli mixtures on mitigating mycotoxins and heavy metals’ risks of contaminated sewage sludge and its composts. Scientific Reports 10, 15159
| The role of Serendipita indica and Lactobacilli mixtures on mitigating mycotoxins and heavy metals’ risks of contaminated sewage sludge and its composts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zhou F, Tomberlin JK, Zheng L, Yu Z, Zhang J (2013) Developmental and waste reduction plasticity of three black soldier fly strains (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) raised on different livestock manures. Journal of Medical Entomology 50, 1224–1230.
| Developmental and waste reduction plasticity of three black soldier fly strains (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) raised on different livestock manures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
