Free Standard AU & NZ Shipping For All Book Orders Over $80!
Register      Login
Animal Production Science Animal Production Science Society
Food, fibre and pharmaceuticals from animals
RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Food and feed, mycotoxins and the perpetual pentagram in a changing animal production environment

Wayne L. Bryden
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

The University of Queensland, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences and Centre for Animal Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, Gatton, Qld 4343, Australia. Email: w.bryden@uq.edu.au

Animal Production Science 52(7) 383-397 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN12073
Submitted: 28 February 2012  Accepted: 30 March 2012   Published: 8 May 2012

Journal Compilation © CSIRO Publishing 2012 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND

Abstract

G. L. McClymont developed a unique paradigm in which to consider the challenges that confront agriculture and it is based on an understanding of the interrelationships of plants, animals, soils and water within an economic and social framework. The major changes in our environment are the consequence of rapid population growth and the need to increase world food supplies. Within this context, this paper provides an overview of the link between agriculture, especially animal production and population health and how mycotoxins, fungal secondary metabolites, can perturb this link. Examples from New Zealand and Australian animal agriculture are described. The underlying premise of this paper is that agriculture is a major determinant of human health through the supply of food derived from both plant and animal sources. In other words, nutrition is the conduit between agriculture and human health. Against this backdrop the potential role of mycotoxins in determining food and feed supplies is discussed. Globally, mycotoxins have significant human and animal health, economic and international trade implications.


References

Aldred D, Magan N (2004) The use of HACPP in the control of mycotoxins: the case of cereals. In ‘Mycotoxins in food’. (Eds N Magan, M Olsen) pp. 139–173. (Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge)

Allcroft R, Carnaghan RBA, Sargeant K, O’Kelly J (1961) A toxic factor in Brazilian groundnut meal. The Veterinary Record 73, 428–429.

Allen JG (1987) Lupinosis. Veterinary Clinical Toxicology 103, 113–130.

Amuna P, Zotor FB (2008) Epidemiological and nutrition transition in developing countries: impact on human health and development. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 67, 82–90.

Annison EF, Bryden WL (1998) Perspectives on ruminant nutrition and metabolism. I. Metabolism in the rumen. Nutrition Research Reviews 11, 173–198.

Barger G (1931) ‘Ergot and ergotism.’ (Guerney and Jackson: London)

Berthiller F, Schuhmacher R, Adam G, Krska R (2009) Formation, determination and significance of masked and other conjugated mycotoxins. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 395, 1243–1252.

Binder EM, Heidler D, Schatzmayrg G, Thimm N, Fuchs E, Schuh M, Krska R, Binder J (2001) Microbial detoxification of mycotoxins in animal feed. In ‘Mycotoxins and phytcotoxins in perspective at the turn of the millennium’. (Eds WJ de Koe, RA Samson, HP van Egmond, J Gilbert, M Sabino) pp. 271–277. (IUPAC: Amsterdam, The Netherlands)

Binder EM, Tan LM, Chin JL, Handl J, Richard J (2007) Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients. Animal Feed Science and Technology 137, 265–282.

Blaney BJ (1985) Mycotoxins in crops grown in different climatic regions of Queensland. In ‘Trichothecenes and other mycotoxins’. (Ed. J Lacey) pp. 97–108. (John Wiley and Sons Ltd: Chichester)

Blaney BJ, Dodman RL (2002) Production of zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and acetylated derivatives by Australian isolates of Fusarium graminearum and F. pseudograminearum in relation to source and culturing conditions. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 53, 1317–1326.

Blaney BJ, Williams KC (1991) Effective use in livestock feeds of mouldy and weather-damaged grain containing mycotoxins: case histories and economic assessments pertaining to pig and poultry industries of Queensland. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 42, 993–1012.

Blaney BJ, Kopinski JS, Magee MH, McKenzie RA, Blight GW, Maryam R, Downing JA (2000a) Blood prolactin depression in growing pigs fed sorghum ergot (Claviceps africana). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 51, 785–791.

Blaney BJ, McKenzie RA, Walters JR, Taylor LF, Bewg WS, Ryley MJ, Maryam R (2000b) Sorghum ergot associated with agalactia and feed refusal in pigs and dairy cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 78, 102–107.

Blaney BJ, Maryam R, Murray S-A, Ryley MJ (2003) Alkaloids of the sorghum ergot pathogen (Claviceps africana): assay methods for grain and feed and variation between sclerotia/sphacelia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 167–175.

Blaxter KL (1991) Animal production and food: real problems and paranoia. Animal Production 53, 261–269.

Blount WP (1961) Turkey ‘X’ disease. Turkeys 9, 52–77.

Brase S, Encinas A, Keck J, Nising CF (2009) Chemistry and biology of mycotoxins and related fungal metabolites. Chemical Reviews 109, 390–399.

Bricknell LK, Blaney BJ, Ng J (2008) Risk management for mycotoxin contamination of Australian maize. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 342–350.

Bryden WL (1982) Aflatoxin and animal production: an Australian perspective. Food Technology in Australia 34, 216–223.

Bryden WL (1994) The many guises of ergotism. In ‘Plant-associated toxins: agricultural, phytochemical and ecological aspects’. (Eds SM Colegate, PR Dorling) pp. 381–386. (CAB International: Wallingford, UK)

Bryden WL (1998) Mycotoxin contamination of Australian pastures and feedstuffs. In ‘Toxic plants and other natural toxicants’. (Eds T Garland, AC Barr) pp. 474–478. (CAB International: Wallingford, UK)

Bryden WL (2007) Mycotoxins in the food chain: human health implications. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 16, 95–101.

Bryden WL (2009) Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses: significance, occurrence and mitigation in the food chain. In ‘General and applied toxicology’. 3rd edn. (Eds B Ballantyne, T Marrs, T Syversen) pp. 3529–3553. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd: Chichester, UK)

Bryden WL (2012) Mycotoxin contamination of the feed supply chain: implications for animal productivity and feed security. Animal Feed Science and Technology 173, 134–158.

Bryden WL, Rajion MA, Lloyd AB, Cumming RB (1975) Surveys of Australian feedstuffs for toxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus and for aflatoxin. Australian Veterinary Journal 51, 491–493.

Bryden WL, Lloyd AB, Cumming RB (1980) Aflatoxin contamination of Australian animal feeds and suspected cases of mycotoxicosis. Australian Veterinary Journal 56, 176–180.

Bryden WL, Suter DAI, Jackson CAW (1984) Response of chickens to sorghum contaminated with Alternaria. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 9, 109.

Bryden WL, Bakau BJK, Burgess LW (1987a) Toxicity of Australian Alternaria isolates in a chick bioassay. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 12, 171.

Bryden WL, Love RJ, Burgess LW (1987b) Feeding grain contaminated with Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium moniliforme to pigs and chickens. Australian Veterinary Journal 64, 225–226.

Bryden WL, Ravindran G, Salahifar H, Gill RJ, Burgess LW (1995) Fumonisin content of Australian maize. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 19, 46

Bryden WL, Shanks GL, Ravindran G, Summerell BA, Burgess LW (1998) Occurrence of Fusarium moniliforme and fumonisins in Australian maize in relation to animal disease. In ‘Toxic plants and other natural toxicants’. (Eds T Garland, AC Barr) pp. 474–478. (CAB International: Wallingford, UK)

Bryden WL, Suksupath S, Taylor DJ, Prasongsidh BC (2004) Cyclopiazonic acid: food chain contamination? In ‘Plant toxins’. (Ed. T Acamovic) pp. 134–139. (CAB International: Wallingford, UK)

Burgess LW, Bryden WL, Jessup TM, Scrivener CJ, Barrow KD (1986) Role for ergot alkaloids in bovine hyperthermia. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 11, 120

CAST (1989) Mycotoxins: economic and health risks. Report No. 116. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, IA, USA.

CAST (1999) Animal agriculture and global food supply. Report No. 135. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, IA, USA.

CAST (2003) Mycotoxins: risks in plant, animal and human systems. Report No. 139. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, IA, USA.

Cawdell-Smith AJ, Bakau WJK, Scrivener CJ, Reed KFM, Blaney BJ, Bryden WL (2007a) Ergot toxins and animal disease in Australia. In ‘Poisonous plants: global research and solutions’. (Eds KE Panter, TL Wierenga, JA Pfister) pp. 519–524. (CABI Publishing: Wallingford, UK)

Cawdell-Smith AJ, Edwards MJ, Bryden WL (2007b) Mycotoxins and abnormal embryonic development. In ‘Poisonous plants: global research and solutions’. (Eds KE Panter, TL Wierenga, JA Pfister) pp. 525–532. (CABI Publishing: Wallingford, UK)

Cawdell-Smith AJ, Scrivener CJ, Bryden WL (2010) Staggers in horses grazing paspalum infected with Claviceps paspali. Australian Veterinarian Journal 88, 393–395.

Charmley LL, Rosenberg A, Trenholm HL (1994) Factors responsible for economic losses due to Fusarium mycotoxin contamination of grains, foods and feedstuffs. In ‘Mycotoxins in grains: compounds other than aflatoxin’. (Eds JD Miller, HL Trenholm) pp. 471–486. (Eagan Press: St Paul, MN)

Cheeke PR (1998) ‘Natural toxicants in feeds, forages and poisonous plants.’ (Interstate Publishers, Inc. Danville, IL)

Cheeke PR (2004) ‘Contemporary issues in animal agriculture.’ (Pearson Prentice Hall: New Jersey)

Clare NT (1952) ‘Photosensitization in diseases of domestic animals.’ (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux: Farnham Royal, England)

Coffey R, Cummins E, Ward S (2009) Exposure assessment of mycotoxins in dairy milk. Food Control 20, 239–249.

Cole RJ (Ed.) (1986a) ‘Modern methods in the analysis and structural elucidation of mycotoxins.’ (Academic Press: New York)

Cole RJ (1986b) Etiology of Turkey ‘X’ disease in retrospect: a case for the involvement of cyclopiazonic acid. Mycotoxin Research 2, 3–7.

Cole RJ (1989) Technology of aflatoxin decontamination. In ‘Mycotoxins and phycotoxins 88’. (Eds S Natori, K Hashimoto, Y Uueno) pp. 177–184. (Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.: Amsterdam)

Cole RJ, Dorner JW (1986) Role of fungal tremorgens in animal disease. In ‘Mycotoxins and phycotoxins’. (Eds PS Steyn, R Vleggaar) pp. 501–511. (Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands)

Cole RJ, Scheweikert MA, Javis BB (2003) ‘Handbook of secondary fungal metabolites.’ (Academic Press: San Diego, CA)

Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, O’Keefe JH, Brand-Miller J (2004) Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 81, 341–354.

Cribb J (2010) ‘The coming famine.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)

Culvenor CCJ (1974) The hazard from toxic fungi in Australia. Australian Veterinary Journal 50, 69–78.

Dairy Australia (2011) ‘A review of facial eczema.’ Report of the Dairy Australia Facial Eczema Working Group. (Dairy Australia Ltd: Melbourne)

Degen GH (2011) Tools for investigating workplace-related risks for mycotoxin exposure. World Mycotoxin Journal 4, 315–327.

Delgado CL (2003) Rising consumption of meat and milk in developing countries has created a new food revolution. The Journal of Nutrition 133, 3902S–3910S.

Dersjant-Li Y, Verstegen MWA, Gerrits WJJ (2003) The impact of low concentrations of aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol or fumonisins in diets on growing pigs and poultry. Nutrition Research Reviews 16, 223–239.

Desjardins AE (2006) ‘Fusarium mycotoxins: chemistry genetics and biology.’ (APS Press: St Paul, MN)

di Menna ME, Lauren DR, Poole PR, Mortimer PH, Hill RA, Agnew MP (1987) Zearalenone in New Zealand pasture herbage and the mycotoxin-producing potential of Fusarium species from pasture. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 30, 499–504.

di Menna ME, Lauren DR, Hardacre A (1997) Fusaria and Fusarium toxins in New Zealand maize plants. Mycopathologia 139, 165–173.

di Menna ME, Smith BL, Miles CO (2009) A history of facial eczema (pithomycotoxicosis) research. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 52, 345–376.

Dorner JW (2008) Management and prevention of mycotoxins in peanuts. Food Additives and Contaminants 25, 203–208.

Edgar JA, Frahn JL, Cockrum PA, Culvenor CCJ (1986) Lupinosis: the chemistry and biochemistry of the fumonisins. In ‘Mycotoxins and phycotoxins’. (Eds PS Steyn, R Vleggaar) pp. 169–184. (Elsevier: Amsterdam)

Eriksen GS, Pettersson H, Johnsen K, Lindberg JE (2002) Transformation of trichothecenes in ileal digesta and faeces from pigs. Archives of Animal Nutrition 56, 263–274.

Farrell D (2010) ‘Great wealth, poor health: contemporary issues in eating and living.’ (Nottingham University Press: Nottingham)

Faull BW (1991) Prevalence and cost of facial eczema on dairy farms. Surveillance 18, 14–16.

Feuell AJ (1966) Toxic factors of mould origin. Tropical Science 8, 61–70.

Fink-Gremmels J (2008) Mycotoxins in cattle feeds and carry-over to dairy milk: a review. Food Additives and Contaminants 25, 172–180.

Fink-Gremmels J, Malekinejad H (2007) Clinical effects and biochemical mechanisms associated with exposure to the mycoestrogen zearalenone. Animal Feed Science and Technology 137, 326–341.

Fletcher LR, Harvey IC (1981) An association of a lolium endophyte with ryegrass staggers. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 29, 185–186.

Food Standards Australia New Zealand (2011) ‘The 23rd Australian total diet study.’ (FSANZ: Canberra)

Fraser DM, Dorling PR (1983) Suspected ergotism in two heifers. Australian Veterinary Journal 60, 303–305.

Fuchs E, Binder EM, Heidler D, Krska R (2002) Structural characterization of metabolites after microbial degradation of type A trichothecenes by the bacterial strain BBSH 797. Food Additives and Contaminants 19, 379–386.

Galvano F, Piva A, Ritieni A, Galvano G (2001) Dietary strategies to counteract the effects of mycotoxins: a review. Journal of Food Protection 64, 120–131.

Garrett KA, Dendy SP, Frank EE, Rouse MN, Travers SE (2006) Climate change effects on plant disease: genome to ecosystems. Annual Review of Phytopathology 44, 489–509.

Gelineau-van Waes J, Starr L, Maddox J, Alleman F, Voss KA, Wilberding J, Riley RT (2005) Maternal fumonisin exposure and risk for neural tube defects: mechanisms in an in vivo mouse model. Birth Defects Research. Part A, Clinical and Molecular Teratology 73, 487–497.

Givens DI (2010) Milk and meat in our diet; good or bad for health? Animal 4, 1941–1952.

Godfray CJ (2011) Food for thought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108, 19845–19846.

Graham J (1982) Aflatoxin in peanuts: occurrence and control. Queensland Agricultural Journal 108, 119–122.

Gregory PJ, George TS (2011) Feeding nine billion: the challenge to sustainable crop production. Experimental Botany 62, 5233–5239.

Hagler WM Jr, Towers NR, Mirocha CJ, Eppley RM, Bryden WL (2001) Zearalenone: mycotoxin or mycoestrogen? In ‘Fusarium: Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium’. (Eds BA Summerell, JF Leslie, D Backhouse, WL Bryden, LW Burgess) pp. 321–331. (APS Press: St Paul, MN)

Hamilton PB (1978) Fallacies in our understanding of mycotoxins. Journal of Food Protection 41, 404–408.

Hamilton PB (1982) Mycotoxins and farm animals. Refu’ah Veterinarit 39, 17–45.

Hamilton RMG, Trenholm HL, Thompson BK (1988) Chemical, nutritive, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone content of corn relative to the site of inoculation with different isolates of Fusarium graminearum. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 43, 37–47.

Haschek WM, Voss KA, Beasley VR (2002) Selected mycotoxins affecting animal and human health. In ‘Handbook of toxicological pathology, second edition. Volume 1’. (Eds WM Haschek, ECG Rousseaux, MA Wallig) pp. 645–699. (Academic Press: New York)

Hawkesworth S, Dangouri AD, Johnston D, Lock K, Poole P, Rushton J, Uauy R, Waage J (2010) Feeding the world healthily: the challenge of measuring the effects of agriculture on health. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365, 3083–3097.

Hegarty RS (2012) Livestock nutrition: future needs in a resource challenged planet. Animal Production Science in press

Heinl S, Hartinger D, Thamhesl M, Vekiru E, Krska R, Schatzmayr G, Moll W-D, Grabherr R (2010) Degradation of fumonisin B1 by the consecutive action of two bacterial enzymes. Journal of Biotechnology 145, 120–129.

Heinl S, Hartinger D, Thamhesl M, Schatzmayr G, Moll W-D, Grabherr R (2011) An aminotransferase from bacterium ATCC 55552 deaminates hydrolysed fumonisin B1. Biodegradation 22, 25–30.

Henry SH, Bosch FX, Troxell TC, Bolger PM (1999) Reducing liver cancer – global control of aflatoxin. Science 286, 2453–2454.

Humpf HU, Voss KA (2004) Effects of thermal food processing on the chemical structure and toxicity of fumonisin mycotoxins. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 48, 255–269.

Hunter RA (2010) Hormonal growth promotant use in the Australian beef industry. Animal Production Science 50, 637–659.

Hurst E (1942) ‘The poison plants of New South Wales.’ (New South Wales Poison Plants Committee: Sydney)

Huwig A, Freimund S, Käppeli O, Dutler H (2001) Mycotoxin detoxification of animal feed by different adsorbents. Toxicology Letters 122, 179–188.

Jang IH, Van der Tol J, Bryden WL, McDowell GH, Ross AD, Christie BM, Burgess LW (1987) Ergotism in dairy cattle – effects of ingestion of ergots of Claviceps purpurea. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 12, 169

Jessup TW, Dent CHR, Kemp JB, Christie BM, Ahrens PJ, Burgess LW, Bryden WL (1987) Bovine idiopathic hyperthermia. Australian Veterinary Journal 64, 353–354.

Jouany JP (2007) Methods for preventing decontaminating and minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in feeds. Animal Feed Science and Technology 137, 342–362.

Kabak B, Dobson ADW, Var I (2006) Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination of food and animal feed: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 46, 593–619.

Keyzer MA, Merbis MD, Pavel IFPW, van Wesenbeeck CFA (2005) Diet shifts towards meat and the effects on cereal use: can we feed the animals in 2030? Ecological Economics 55, 187–202.

Lauren DR, diMenna ME, Greenhalgh R, Miller JD, Neish GA, Burgess LW (1988) Toxin-producing potential of some Fusarium species from a New Zealand pasture. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 31, 219–225.

Lauren DR, Agnew MP, Smith WA, Sayer ST (1991) A survey of the natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins in cereals grown in New Zealand in 1986–1989. Food Additives and Contaminants 8, 599–605.

Lauren DR, Jensen DJ, Smith WA, Dow BW, Sayer ST (1996) Mycotoxins in New Zealand maize: a study of some factors influencing contamination levels in grains. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 24, 13–20.

Leng RA (1996) Bill McClymont: the man and his vision. In ‘Rural science: philosophy and application’. (Ed. JS Ryan) pp. 311–320. (School of Rural Science, University of New England: Armidale)

Litherland AJ, Layton DL, Boom CJ, Knight TL, Hyslop M, Lambert MG, Cook TL (2004) Ill-thrift in young growing cattle and sheep. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 64, 197–202.

Lopez-Garcia R (2001) Mycotoxin management: an integrated approach. In ‘Mycotoxins and phycotoxins in perspective at the turn of the millennium’. (Eds WJ de Koe, RA Samson, HP van Egmond, J Gilbert, M Sabino) pp. 261–269. (IUPAC: Amsterdam, The Netherlands)

Lopez-Garcia R, Mallman CA, Pineiro M (2008) Design and management of an integrated system for ochratoxin A in the coffee production chain. Food Additives and Contaminants 25, 231–240.

Lutz W, Samir KC (2010) Dimensions of global population projections: what do we know about future population trends and structures. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365, 2779–2791.

Magan N (2006) Mycotoxin contamination of food in Europe: early detection and prevention strategies. Mycopathologia 162, 245–253.

Magan N, Medina A, Aldred D (2011) Possible climate-change effects on mycotoxin contamination of food crops pre- and postharvest. Plant Pathology 60, 150–163.

Malthus T (1798) ‘An essay on the principle of population.’ (J. Johnson: London)

Mannon J, Johnson E (1985) Fungi down on the farm. New Scientist 105, 12–16.

Marasas WFO, Miller JD, Riley RT, Visconti A (2001) Fusmonisins – occurrence, toxicology, metabolism and risk assessment. In ‘Fusarium: Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium’. (Eds BA Summerell, JF Leslie, D Backhouse, WL Bryden, LW Burgess) pp. 332–359. (APS Press: St Paul, MN)

Matossian MK (1989) ‘Poisons of the past: molds, epidemics and history.’ (Yale University Press: Newhaven)

McClymont GL (1970) The perpetual pentagram: evolution, ecology, economics, ethics and education. Proceedings the Ecology Society of Australia 5, 169–182, reprinted 1996 in ‘Rural science: philosophy and application’. (Ed. JS Ryan) pp. 294–310. (School of Rural Science, University of New England: Armidale)

McClymont GL (1996) All flesh is grass. Inaugural lecture – 1955. In ‘Rural science: philosophy and application’. (Ed. JS Ryan) pp. 1–12. (School of Rural Science, University of New England: Armidale)

Meister U, Springer M (2004) Mycotoxins in cereals and cereal products – occurrence and changes during processing. Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality 78, 168–173.

Miles CO, di Menna ME, Jacobs SWL, Garthwaite I, Lane GA, Prestidge RA, Marshall SL, Wilkinson HH, Schardl CL, Ball OJ-P, Latch GCM (1998) Endophytic fungi in indigenous Australasian grasses. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64, 601–606.

Miller JD (1998) Global significance of mycotoxins. In ‘Mycotoxins and phycotoxins – developments in chemistry, toxicology and food safety’. (Eds M Miraglia, H van Egmond, C Brera, J Gilbert) pp. 3–15. (Alaken Inc.: Fort Collins, CO)

Miller JD (2008) Mycotoxins in small grains and maize: old problems, new challenges. Food Additives and Contaminants 25, 219–230.

Molnar O, Schatzmayr G, Fuchs E, Prillinger H (2004) Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans sp. nov., a new yeast species useful in biological detoxification of various mycotoxins. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 27, 661–671.

Moore CJ, Blaney BJ, Spencer RA, Dodman RL (1985) Rejection by pigs of mouldy grain containing deoxynivalenol. Australian Veterinary Journal 62, 60–62.

Oswald IP, Martin DE, Bouhet S, Pinton P, Taranu I, Accensi F (2005) Immunotoxiological risk of mycotoxins for domestic animals. Food Additives and Contaminants 22, 354–360.

Otsuki T, Wilson JS, Sewadeh M (2001) Saving two in a billion: quantifying the trade effect of European food safety standards on African exports. Food Policy 26, 493–514.

Peet RL, McCarthy MR, Barbetti MJ (1991) Hyperthermia and death in feedlot cattle associated with the ingestion of Claviceps purpurea. Australian Veterinary Journal 68, 121

Pestka JJ, Zhou H-R, Moon Y, Chung YJ (2004) Cellular and molecular mechanisms for immune modulation by deoxynivalenol and other trichothecenes: unravelling the paradox. Toxicology Letters 153, 61–73.

Pettersson H (2004) Controlling mycotoxins in animal feeds. In ‘Mycotoxins in food’. (Eds N Magan, M Olsen) pp. 262–304. (Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge)

Phillips TD (1999) Dietary clay in the chemoprevention of aflatoxin-induced disease. Toxicological Sciences 52, 118–126.

Pohland AE, Yess NJ (1992) Food contaminants; scientific and public health implications. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 17, 1–12.

Rammel C (1991) Mycotoxins in feed. Surveillance 18, 7–13.

Ramos AJ, Sanchis V, Marin S (2011) The prehistory of mycotoxins: related cases from ancient times to the discovery of aflatoxins. World Mycotoxin Journal 4, 101–112.

Reed KFM, Moore DD (2009) A preliminary survey of zearalenone and other mycotoxins in Australian silage and pasture. Animal Production Science 49, 696–703.

Reed KFM, Page SW, Lean IJ (Eds) (2005) ‘Perennial ryegrass toxicosis in Australia.’ (Meat and Livestock Australia: Sydney)

Richard JL (2007) Some major mycotoxins and their mycotoxicoses: an overview. International Journal of Food Microbiology 119, 3–10.

Richard JL (2008) Discovery of aflatoxin and significant historical features. Toxin Reviews 27, 171–201.

Richard JL, Thurston JR (1986) ‘Diagnosis of mycotoxicoses.’ (Martinus Nijhoff: Boston)

Riley RT (1998) Mechanistic interactions of mycotoxins: theoretical considerations. In ‘Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety’. (Eds KK Sinha, D Bhatnagar) pp. 227–253. (Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York)

Rodrigues I, Griessler K (2010) Mycotoxin survey 2009: moulds remain a problem for the whole farm-to-fork. All About Feed 1, 12–14.

Rodrigues I, Naehrer K (2011) Biomin survey 2010: mycotoxins inseparable from animal commodities and feed. All About Feed 2, 17–20.

Ross AD, Bryden WL, Bakau W, Burgess LW (1989) Induction of heat stress in beef cattle by feeding the ergots of Claviceps puepurea. Australian Veterinary Journal 66, 247–249.

Ryan RS (Ed.) (1996) ‘Rural science: philosophy and application.’ (School of Rural Science, University of New England: Armidale)

Ryan RS (Ed.) (2007) ‘McClymont’s vision: the challenge remains.’ (School of Environment and Rural Science, University of New England: Armidale)

Ryley MJ, Alcorn JL, Kochman JK, Kong GA, Thompson SM (1996) Ergot on Sorghum spp. in Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology 25, 214

Samman S, Skeaf S, Thomson C, Truswell S (2012) Trace elements. In ‘Essentials of human nutrition’. 4th edn. (Eds JI Mann, AS Truswell) pp. 139–159. (Oxford University Press: Oxford)

Scholthof K-BG (2003) One foot in the farrow: linkages between agriculture, plant pathology, and public health. Annual Review of Public Health 24, 153–174.

Shephard GS (2008) Impact of mycotoxins on human health in developing countries. Food Additives and Contaminants 25, 146–151.

Shephard GS, Thiel PG, Stockenstrom S, Sydenham EW (1996) Worldwide survey of fumonisin contamination of corn and corn-based products. Journal of AOAC International 79, 671–687.

Shephard GS, Berthiller F, Burdaspal P, Crews C, Jonker MA, Krska R, MacDonald S, Malone B, Maragos C, Sabino M, Solfrizzo M, van Egmond HP, Whitaker T (2011) Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2009–2010. World Mycotoxin Journal 4, 3–28.

Shier WT, Abbas HK, Wearer MA, Horn BW (2005) The case for monitoring Aspergillus flavus aflatoxigenicity for food safety assessment in developing countries. In ‘Aflatoxin and food safety’. (Ed. HK Abbas) pp. 291–311. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL)

Smith BL, Towers NR (2002) Mycotoxicoses of grazing animals in New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 50, 28–34.

Smith D (2011) ‘Dick’s Smith population crisis.’ (Allen & Unwin: Sydney)

Smith JE, Henderson RS (Eds) (1991) ‘Mycotoxins in animal foods.’ (CRC Press Inc.: Boca Raton, FL)

Smith JF, Morris CA (2006) Review of zearalenone studies with sheep in New Zealand. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 66, 306–310.

Speedy AW (2003) Global production and consumption of animal source foods. The Journal of Nutrition 133, 4048S–4043S.

Strange RN, Scott PR (2005) Plant disease: a threat to global food security. Annual Review of Phytopathology 43, 83–116.

Swick RA (2011) Global feed supply and demand. Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition – Australia 18, 1–7.

Tester M, Langridge P (2010) Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world. Science 327, 818–827.

Thornton PK (2010) Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365, 2853–2867.

Towers NR, Sprosen JM (1992) Fusarium mycotoxins in pastoral farming: zearalenone induced infertility in sheep. Recent Advances in Toxinology Research 3, 272–284.

Trenholm HL, Prelusky DB, Young JC, Miller JD (1989) A practical guide to prevention of Fusarium mycotoxins in grains and animal feedstuffs. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 18, 443–451.

Tribe DE (1994) ‘Feeding and greening the world: The role of international agricultural research.’ (CAB International: Wallingford, UK)

van Egmond HP, Jonker MA (2004) Current regulations governing mycotoxin limits in food. In ‘Mycotoxins in food’. (Eds N Magan, M Olsen) pp. 49–68. (Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge)

Voss KA, Smith GW, Haschek WM (2007) Fumonisins: toxicokinetics, mechanism of action and toxicity. Animal Feed Science and Technology 137, 299–325.

Webley DJ, Jackson KL, Mullins JD, Hocking AD, Pitt JI (1997) Alternaria toxins in weather-damaged wheat and sorghum in the 1995–1996 harvest. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 48, 1249–1255.

Whitaker TB (2003) Detecting mycotoxins in agricultural commodities. Molecular Biotechnology 23, 61–71.

Wicklow DT (1995) The mycology of stored grain: an ecological perspective. In ‘Stored-grain ecosystems’. (Eds DS Jayas, NDG White, WE Muir) pp. 197–249. (Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York)

Wild CP (2007) Aflatoxin exposure in low and middle income countries: the critical interface of agriculture and health. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 28, S372–S380.

Wild CP, Gong YY (2010) Mycotoxins and human disease: a largely ignored global health issue. Carcinogenesis 31, 71–82.

Williams P (2007) Nutritional composition of red meat. Nutrition and Dietetics 64, S113–S119.

Williamson PM, Highet AS, Gams W, Siva-Sithamparam K, Cowling WA (1994) Diaporthe toxica sp. nov., the cause of lupinosis in sheep. Mycological Research 98, 1364–1368.

Wogan GN, Kensler TW, Groopman JD (2012) Present and future directions of translational research on aflatoxin and hepatocellular carcinoma: a review. Food Additives and Contaminants 29, 249–257.

Wright GC, Rachaputi NC, Chauhan YS, Robson A (2005) Increasing productivity and quality of peanuts using novel crop modeling and remote sensing technologies. In ‘Prospects and emerging opportunities for peanut quality and utilization technology. International peanut conference’. pp. 14–17. (Kasetsart University: Bangkok, Thailand)

Wu F (2004) Mycotoxin risk assessment for the purpose of setting international regulatory standards. Environmental Science & Technology 38, 4049–4055.

Wu F (2008) A tale of two commodities: how EU mycotoxin regulations have affected food industries. World Mycotoxin Journal 1, 71–78.

Wu F, Khlangwiset P (2010) Evaluating the technical feasibility of aflatoxin risk reduction strategies in Africa. Food Additives and Contaminants 27, 658–676.

Wu F, Munkvold GP (2008) Mycotoxin in ethanol co-products: modelling economic impacts on the livestock industry and management strategies. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56, 3900–3911.

Wu F, Bhatnagar D, Bui-Klimke T, Cardone I, Hellmich R, Munkvold G, Paul P, Payne G, Takle E (2011) Climate change impacts on mycotoxin risks in US maize. World Mycotoxin Journal 4, 79–93.