On-farm greenhouse gas emissions and water use: case studies in the Queensland beef industry
Sandra Eady A D , James Viner B and Justin MacDonnell CA CSIRO Livestock Industries, Locked Bag 1, Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia.
B Tressa Vale, Glastonbury, Gympie, Qld 4570, Australia.
C Towrie, Arcadia Valley, Qld 4454, Australia.
D Corresponding author. Email: sandra.eady@csiro.au
Animal Production Science 51(8) 667-681 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN11030
Submitted: 2 March 2011 Accepted: 24 May 2011 Published: 5 August 2011
Abstract
In response to climate change, research is being undertaken to understand the on-farm greenhouse gas emissions and water use for agricultural systems and investigate options farmers may have for mitigating or offsetting emissions. In the present study, a life cycle assessment framework is used to determine on-farm GHG emissions and water use, and the overall ‘cradle-to-farm gate’ GHG emissions and water use attributed to beef production. The total on-farm emissions for the two properties were 2984 t CO2-e/year (or 1.93 t CO2-e/livestock unit) for the 634-cow enterprise turning off weaner cattle at Gympie and 5725 t CO2-e/year (or 1.70 t CO2-e/livestock unit) for the 720-cow enterprise turning off finished steers in the Arcadia Valley. The on-farm emissions are largely attributable to enteric methane emissions from the beef herd. The overall ‘cradle-to-farm gate’ GHG emissions associated with enterprise products were 3145 t CO2-e/year at Gympie and 7253 t CO2-e/year in the Arcadia Valley, with the additional emissions coming from off-farm inputs (fuel for farm vehicles and earth-moving equipment, electricity, supplementary feed, agricultural chemicals, farm services) and additionally, for the Arcadia Valley enterprise, from purchased store steers. The carbon footprint of beef products at the farm gate ranged from 17.5 to 22.9 kg CO2-e/kg liveweight at Gympie, where wearers are the primary product, and from 11.6 to 15.5 kg CO2-e/kg liveweight in the Arcadia Valley, where finished steers are the primary product. Green water use ranged from 7400 to 12 700 L/kg liveweight depending on class of livestock, with on-farm blue water use of 51–96 L/kg liveweight and off-farm blue water use of 0.1–59 L/kg liveweight. The ability to offset on-farm GHG emissions through reforestation varied between the two locations, with predicted biosequestration rates of 19.3–34.7 t CO2-e/ha per year at Gympie (rainfall 1200 mm/year) from eucalypt plantation and 1.5–9.8 t CO2-e/ha per year in the Arcadia Valley (rainfall 600 mm/year) through reforestation from a combination of brigalow regrowth, leucaena and environmental eucalypt plantings. The area that would need to be reforested to offset on-farm emissions (over a 30-year time horizon) would be 86–155 ha at Gympie (7–13% of the holding) and 629–4108 ha in the Arcadia Valley (9–60%). If carbon sequestration could be achieved at the higher end of the rates nominated, a significant proportion of on-farm emissions could be offset by sequestration in timber, with minimal impact on beef production. However, at the lower end of the forest sequestration range, the required level of land-use change would reduce the carrying capacity, and hence beef production, especially at the Arcadia Valley site.
Additional keywords: agriculture, beef production, enteric methane, life cycle assessment, nitrous oxide.
References
Australian Farm Institute (2009) FarmGAS greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions calculator. Available at http://farmgas.farminstitute.org.au/publicpages/AFIPublic.aspx?ReturnUrl=%2fdefault.aspx [Verified 2 March 2011]Baldock J, Broos K (2008) Can we build-up carbon and can we sell it? Australian Grain May–June 4–9.
Basett-Mens C, Breton JF (2008) Estimating the carbon footprint of raw milk at the farm gate: methodological review and recommendations. In ‘Proceedings of the 6th international conference on life cycle assessment in the agri-food sector’, Zurich, Switzerland, 12–14 November 2008. Available at www.lcafood08.ch [Verified 2 March 2011]
Beauchemin KA, Kreuzer M, O’Mara F, McAllister TA (2008) Nutritional management for enteric methane abatement: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 21–27.
| Nutritional management for enteric methane abatement: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXovVGn&md5=36eb7e54a2aa53d5c5e72e40049f37d7CAS |
Beauchemin KA, Janzen H, Little SM, McAllister TA, McGinn SM (2010) Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from beef production in western Canada: a case study. Agricultural Systems 103, 371–379.
| Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from beef production in western Canada: a case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bentley D, Hegarty RS, Alford AR (2008) Managing livestock enterprises in Australia’s extensive rangelands for greenhouse gas and environment outcomes: a pastoral company perspective. Animal Production Science 48, 60–64.
| Managing livestock enterprises in Australia’s extensive rangelands for greenhouse gas and environment outcomes: a pastoral company perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXovVGq&md5=a3ce9a9b6f891c3b39cbb12bf8e0b85aCAS |
Bureau of Meteorology (2010) Climate statistics for Australian locations. Available at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_040093.shtml [Verified 2 March 2011]
Casey JW, Holden NM (2006) Greenhouse gas emissions from conventional, agri-environmental scheme, and organic Irish suckler-beef units. Journal of Environmental Quality 35, 231–239.
| Greenhouse gas emissions from conventional, agri-environmental scheme, and organic Irish suckler-beef units.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtFGitr0%3D&md5=1a52d05c73166075417abed19aa509bdCAS |
Cederberg C, Stadig M (2003) System expansion and allocation in life cycle assessment of milk and beef production. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 8, 350–356.
| System expansion and allocation in life cycle assessment of milk and beef production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cederberg C, Persson UM, Neovius K, Molander S, Clift R (2011) Including carbon emissions from deforestation in the carbon footprint of Brazilian beef. Environmental Science & Technology 45, 1773–1779.
| Including carbon emissions from deforestation in the carbon footprint of Brazilian beef.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtlajtLo%3D&md5=19ee0f1361371c4db4c8451f01a87291CAS |
Central Statistics Office Ireland (2011) ‘Population statistics.’ Available at http://www.cso.ie [Verified 13 May 2011]
Charmley E, Stephens ML, Kennedy PM (2008) Predicting livestock productivity and methane emissions in northern Australia: development of a bio-economic modelling approach. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 109–113.
| Predicting livestock productivity and methane emissions in northern Australia: development of a bio-economic modelling approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXovV2i&md5=111d7dbb6214e875dcfbc1d0cc549a89CAS |
CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology (2010) ‘State of the climate.’ Available at http://www.csiro.au/resources/State-of-the-Climate.html [Verified 2 March 2011]
Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency (2010) ‘Carbon farming initiative.’ Available at http://www.climatechange.gov.au/cfi [verified 2 March 2011]
Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency (2011) ‘Australia’s national greenhouse accounts.’ Department of Climate Change, Canberra, Australia. Available at www.climatechange.gov.au [Verified 2 March 2011]
Donaghy P, Bray S, Gowen R, Rolfe J, Stephens M, Williams S, Hoffman M, Stunzner A (2009) ‘The bioeconomic potential for agroforestry in northern cattle grazing systems.’ RIRDC Publication No. 09/140. (RIRDC: Canberra)
Eady SJ, Ridoutt BG (2009) Setting reporting periods, allocation methods and system boundaries for Australian agricultural life cycle assessment. In ‘Proceedings of the 6th Australian conference on life cycle assessment – Sustainability tools for a new climate’. (ALCAS CD of Proceedings: Melbourne)
Eady SJ, Grundy M, Battaglia M, Keating B (2009) ‘An analysis of greenhouse gas mitigation and carbon biosequestration opportunities from rural land use.’ CSIRO Sustainable Agriculture Flagship, Brisbane. Available at http://www.csiro.au/resources/carbon-and-rural-land-use-report.html [Verified 2 March 2011]
Eckard RJ (2010) ‘Beef (or Sheep) Greenhouse Accounting Framework.’ Available at www.greenhouse.unimelb.edu.au/Tools.htm [Verified 2 March 2011]
Eckard RJ, Dalley D, Crawford M (2000) Impacts of potential management changes on greenhouse gas emissions and sequestration from dairy production systems in Australia. In ‘Management options for carbon sequestration in forest, agricultural and rangeland ecosystems’. (Eds R Keenan, AL Bugg, H Ainslie) pp. 58–72. (Australian National University: Canberra)
Environment Canada (2011) National greenhouse gas inventory. Available at http://www.climatechange.gc.ca [Verified 13 May 2011]
Falkenmark M, Rockström J (2006) The new blue and green water paradigm: breaking new ground for water resources planning and management. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 132, 129–132.
| The new blue and green water paradigm: breaking new ground for water resources planning and management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Finnveden G, Hauschild MZ, Ekvall T, Guinee J, Heijungs R, Hellwege S, Koehler A, Pennington D, Suh S (2009) Recent developments in life cycle assessment. Journal of Environmental Management 91, 1–21.
| Recent developments in life cycle assessment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gifford R, McIvor J (2009) Rehabilitate overgrazed rangelands, restoring soil and vegetation carbon-balance. In ‘An analysis of greenhouse gas mitigation and carbon biosequestration opportunities from rural land use’. (Eds SJ Eady, M Grundy, M Battaglia, B Keating) pp. 60–76. CSIRO Sustainable Agriculture Flagship, Brisbane. Available at http://www.csiro.au/resources/carbon-and-rural-land-use-report.html [Verified 2 March 2011]
Hunter RA, Niethe GE (2009) Efficiency of feed utilisation and methane emission for various cattle breeding and finishing systems. Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition – Australia 17, 75–79.
International Organization for Standardization (2006) ‘ISO 14044: 2006 Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines.’ (International Organization for Standardization: Geneva)
Irish Environmental Protection Agency (2011) ‘National greenhouse gas inventory.’ Available at http://coe.epa.ie [Verified 13 May 2011]
Jeffrey SJ, Carter JO, Moodie KM, Beswick AR (2001) Using spatial interpolation to construct a comprehensive archive of Australian climate data. Environmental Modelling & Software 16, 309–330.
| Using spatial interpolation to construct a comprehensive archive of Australian climate data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lee DJ, Huth JR, Osborne DO, Hogg BW (2009) Selecting hardwood varieties for fibre production in Queensland’s subtropics, In ‘Proceedings of the 2nd Australasian forest genetics conference’, 20–22 April 2009, Fremantle, WA.
Littleboy M, McKeon GM (1997) Subroutine GRASP: grass production model. Documentation of the Marcoola version of Subroutine GRASP. Appendix 2 of evaluating risks of pasture and land degradation in native pasture in Queensland. Final Project Report DAQ124A. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
McAllister TA, Newbold CJ (2008) Redirecting rumen fermentation to reduce methanogenesis. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 7–13.
| Redirecting rumen fermentation to reduce methanogenesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXovVKh&md5=8bc4ce758190f69a2514d2a7577303bcCAS |
McKeon GM, Day KA, Howden SM, Mott JJ, Orr DM, Scattini WJ, Weston EJ (1990) Northern Australian savannas: management for pastoral production. Journal of Biogeography 17, 355–372.
| Northern Australian savannas: management for pastoral production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKeon GM, Ash A, Hall W, Stafford Smith M (2000) Simulation of grazing strategies for beef production in north-east Queensland. In ‘Applications of seasonal climate forecasting in agricultural and natural ecosystems’. (Eds G Hammer, N Nicholls, C Mitchell) pp. 227–252. (Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands)
National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (NGGI) Committee (2006) ‘Australian methodology for the estimation of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks 2006: agriculture.’ (Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency: Canberra)
National Research Council (1996) Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. Beef Cattle Nutrition Committee, National Research Council, Nation Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Nielsen PH, Nielsen AM, Weidema BP, Dalgaard R, Halberg N (2003) LCA food data base. Available at www.lcafood.dk [Verified 28 June 2011]
NSW Department of Primary Industries (2007) ‘NSW DPI gross margin sheet.’ Available at http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/farm-business/budgets/templates [Verified 2 March 2011]
Pelletier N, Pirog R, Rasmussen R (2010) Comparative life cycle environmental impacts of three beef production strategies in the Upper Midwestern United States. Agricultural Systems 103, 380–389.
Peters GM, Rowley HV, Wiedemann S, Tucker R, Short MD, Schulz M (2010) Red meat production in Australia: life cycle assessment and comparison with overseas studies. Environmental Science & Technology 44, 1327–1332.
| Red meat production in Australia: life cycle assessment and comparison with overseas studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXkt1agug%3D%3D&md5=4be048aa1e0e01a4479fc6c312975492CAS |
Rebitzer G, Loerincik Y, Jolliet O (2002) Input–output life cycle assessment: from theory to applications. International Journal Life Cycle Assessment 7, 174–176.
| Input–output life cycle assessment: from theory to applications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Richards G, Evans D, Reddin A, Leitch J (2005) ‘The FullCAM carbon accounting model (Version 3.0) user manual.’ Available at http://www.climatechange.gov.au/government/initiatives/ncat/~/media/publications/carbon-accounting/toolbox-cd/fullcam-usermanual.ashx [Verified 2 March 2011]
Ridoutt BG, Pfister S (2010) A revised approach to water footprinting to make transparent the impacts of consumption and production on global freshwater scarcity. Global Environmental Change 20, 113–120.
| A revised approach to water footprinting to make transparent the impacts of consumption and production on global freshwater scarcity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sanderman J, Farquharson R, Baldock J (2010) ‘Soil carbon sequestration potential: a review for Australian agriculture.’ (CSIRO: Adelaide). Available at http://www.csiro.au/resources/Soil-Carbon-Sequestration-Potential-Report.html [Verified 2 March 2011]
Shelton M, Dalzell S (2007) Production, economic and environmental benefits of leucaena pastures. Tropical Grasslands 41, 174–190.
Statistics Canada (2011) ‘Population statistics.’ Available at http://www.statcan.gc.ca [Verified 13 May 2011]
United States Census Bureau (2011) ‘Population statistics.’ Available at http://www.census.gov/popest/estimates.html [Verified 13 May 2011]
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2011) ‘National greenhouse gas inventory.’ Available at http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloads11/US-GHG-Inventory-2011-Executive-Summary.pdf [Verified 13 May 2011]
