Complexity of homeowner wildfire risk mitigation: an integration of hazard theories
Bonita L. McFarlane A C , Tara K. McGee B and Hilary Faulkner B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre, 5320 122 Street, Edmonton, AB, T6H 3S5, Canada.
B University of Alberta, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, 1-26 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2G8, Canada.
C Corresponding author. Email: bonita.mcfarlane@nrcan.gc.ca
International Journal of Wildland Fire 20(8) 921-931 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF10096
Submitted: 19 August 2010 Accepted: 23 March 2011 Published: 17 October 2011
Abstract
Each year wildfire affects communities in Canada, resulting in evacuations and, in some cases, loss of homes. Several Canadian wildfire management agencies have initiated mitigation programs aimed at reducing wildfire risk. Successful wildfire mitigation involves both community-level and homeowner action. This paper examines factors that influence wildfire mitigation by homeowners. We draw upon the general hazards and wildfire management literature to develop and test a theoretical model for homeowner wildfire mitigation that includes perceived risk, an evaluation of threat significance and the influence of perceived costs and benefits of mitigation. We used a mail survey to collect data from 1265 residents in six interface communities in the province of Alberta. Results showed a high level of completion for most mitigation activities. A structural equation model provided support for the hypothesis that the evaluation of threat involves weighing the negative effects of mitigation on homeowners’ feelings of connectedness to nature and the cost of mitigation with the positive influences of fear, a sense of responsibility and perceived effectiveness of mitigation. Considering the total effects, threat assessment had the greatest effect on mitigation by homeowners, followed by perceived effectiveness of mitigation in reducing damage and not having financial resources for mitigation.
Additional keywords: natural hazard, risk perception, wildland–urban interface.
References
Alberta Sustainable Resource Development (2009) ‘FireSmart.’ Available at http://www.srd.alberta.ca/ManagingPrograms/PreventingFightingWildfire/FireSmart/Default.aspx [Verified 18 August 2010]Arvai J, Gregory R, Ohlson D, Blackwell B, Gray R (2006) Letdowns, wake-up calls and constructed preferences: people’s responses to fuel and wildfire risks. Journal of Forestry 104, 173–181.
Beverly JL, Bothwell P, Conner JCR, Herd EPK (2010) Assessing the exposure of the built environment to potential ignition sources generated from vegetative fuel. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 299–313.
| Assessing the exposure of the built environment to potential ignition sources generated from vegetative fuel.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brenkert-Smith H, Champ PA, Flores N (2006) Insights into wildfire mitigation decisions among wildland–urban residents. Society & Natural Resources 19, 759–768.
| Insights into wildfire mitigation decisions among wildland–urban residents.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bright AD, Burtz RT (2006) Creating defensible space in the wildland–urban interface: the influence of values on perceptions and behavior. Environmental Management 37, 170–185.
| Creating defensible space in the wildland–urban interface: the influence of values on perceptions and behavior.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bright AD, Manfredo MJ, Fishbein M, Bath A (1993) Application of the theory of reasoned action to the National Park Service’s controlled burn policy. Journal of Leisure Research 25, 263–280.
Cohn PJ, Williams DR, Carroll MS (2008) Wildland–urban residents’ views on risk and attribution. In ‘Wildfire risk: human perceptions and management implications’. (Eds WE Martin, C Raish, B Kent) pp. 23–43. (Resources for the Future: Washington, DC)
Collins TW (2009) Influences on wildfire hazard exposure in Arizona’s high country. Society & Natural Resources 22, 211–229.
| Influences on wildfire hazard exposure in Arizona’s high country.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Daniel TC (2007) Perceptions of wildfire risk. In ‘People, fire and forests: a synthesis of wildfire social science’. (Eds TC Daniel, MS Carroll, C Moseley, C Raish) pp. 55–69. (University Press: Corvallis, OR)
Faulkner H, McFarlane BL, McGee TK (2009) Comparison of homeowner response to wildfire risk among towns with and without wildfire management. Environmental Hazards Human and Policy Dimensions 8, 38–51.
Flannigan MD, Logan KA, Amiro BD, Skinner WR, Stocks BJ (2005) Future area burned in Canada. Climatic Change 72, 1–16.
| Future area burned in Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtVyisrzM&md5=9036cc153cf5fd1c42da5d3a5ad13ff1CAS |
Fried JS, Winter GJ, Gilless JK (1999) Assessing the benefits of reducing fire risk in the wildland–urban interface: a contingent valuation approach. International Journal of Wildland Fire 9, 9–20.
| Assessing the benefits of reducing fire risk in the wildland–urban interface: a contingent valuation approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gardner PD, Cortner HJ, Widman K (1987) The risk perceptions and policy response toward wildland fire hazards by urban homeowners. Landscape and Urban Planning 14, 163–172.
| The risk perceptions and policy response toward wildland fire hazards by urban homeowners.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hall TE, Slothower M (2009) Cognitive factors affecting homeowners’ reactions to defensible space in the Oregon coast range. Society & Natural Resources 22, 95–110.
| Cognitive factors affecting homeowners’ reactions to defensible space in the Oregon coast range.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hayduk LA (1987) ‘Structural equation modelling with LISREL. Essentials and advances.’ (Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD)
Hayduk LA (1996) ‘LISREL issues, debates and strategies.’ (Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD)
Jakes P, Kruger L, Monroe M, Nelson K, Sturtevant V (2007) Improving wildfire preparedness: lessons from communities across the U.S. Human Ecology Review 14, 188–197.
Jöreskog K, Sörbom D (1996) ‘LISREL 8: User’s Reference Guide.’ (SSI Scientific Software International, Inc: Chicago, IL)
Kline RB (2005) ‘Principles and practice of structural equation modelling’, 2nd edn (Guilford Press: New York)
Lindell MK, Perry RW (2000) Household adjustment to earthquake hazard: a review of research. Environment and Behavior 32, 461–501.
| Household adjustment to earthquake hazard: a review of research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Martin IM, Bender HW, Raish C (2007) What motivates individuals to protect themselves from risks: the case of wildland fires. Risk Analysis 27, 887–900.
| What motivates individuals to protect themselves from risks: the case of wildland fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Martin WE, Martin IM, Kent B (2009) The role of risk perceptions in the risk mitigation process: the case of wildfire in high risk communities. Journal of Environmental Management 91, 489–498.
| The role of risk perceptions in the risk mitigation process: the case of wildfire in high risk communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCaffrey S (2008) Understanding public perceptions of wildfire risk. In ‘Wildfire risk: human perceptions and management implications’. (Eds WE Martin, C Raish, B Kent) pp. 11–22. (Resources for the Future: Washington, DC)
McGee TK (2005) Completion of recommended WUI fire mitigation measures within urban households in Edmonton, Canada. Environmental Hazards 6, 147–157.
| Completion of recommended WUI fire mitigation measures within urban households in Edmonton, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McGee TK, Russell S (2003) ‘It’s just a natural way of life…’ an investigation of wildfire preparedness in rural Australia. Environmental Hazards 5, 1–12.
| ‘It’s just a natural way of life…’ an investigation of wildfire preparedness in rural Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McGee TK, McFarlane B, Varghese J (2005) ‘Exploration of wildfire risk reduction in communities directly affected by wildfires in 2003.’ (Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada: Ottawa, ON)
McGee TK, McFarlane BL, Varghese J (2009) An examination of the influence of hazard experience on wildfire risk perceptions and adoption of mitigation measures. Society & Natural Resources 22, 308–323.
| An examination of the influence of hazard experience on wildfire risk perceptions and adoption of mitigation measures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Monroe MC, Nelson KC (2004) The value of assessing public perceptions: wildland fire and defensible space. Applied Environmental Education and Communication 3, 109–117.
| The value of assessing public perceptions: wildland fire and defensible space.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Monroe MC, Long AJ, Marynowski S (2003) Wildland fire in the southeast. Negotiating guidelines for defensible space. Journal of Forestry 101, 14–19.
Mulilis JP, Duval TS (1995) Negative threat appeals and earthquake preparedness: a person-relative-to-event (PrE) model of coping with threat. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 25, 1319–1339.
| Negative threat appeals and earthquake preparedness: a person-relative-to-event (PrE) model of coping with threat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nelson KC, Monroe MC, Johnson JF, Bowers A (2004) Living with fire: homeowner assessment of landscape values and defensible space in Minnesota and Florida, USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire 13, 413–425.
| Living with fire: homeowner assessment of landscape values and defensible space in Minnesota and Florida, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nelson KC, Monroe MC, Johnson JF (2005) The look of the land: homeowner landscape management and wildfire preparedness in Minnesota and Florida. Society & Natural Resources 18, 321–336.
| The look of the land: homeowner landscape management and wildfire preparedness in Minnesota and Florida.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Partners in Protection (2003) ‘FireSmart: protecting your community from wildfire’, 2nd edn (Partners in Protection: Edmonton, AB). Available at http://www.partnersinprotection.ab.ca/products.php [Verified 18 August 2010]
Paton D, Kelly G, Burgelt PT, Doherty M (2006) Preparing for bushfires: understanding intentions. Disaster Prevention and Management 15, 566–575.
| Preparing for bushfires: understanding intentions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peter B, Wang S, Mogus T, Wilson B (2006) Fire risk and population trends in Canada’s wildland–urban interface. In ‘Canadian Wildland Fire Strategy: background syntheses, analyses and perspectives’. (Eds KG Hirsch, P Fuglem) pp. 37–48. (Canadian Council of Forest Ministers, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre: Edmonton, AB). Available at http://bookstore.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/detail_e.php?recid=12585762 [Verified 18 August 2010]
Pyne SJ (2007) ‘Awful splendour: a fire history of Canada.’ (UBC Press: Vancouver, BC)
Rogers RW (1975) A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Psychology 91, 93–114.
| A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tymstra C, Flannigan MD, Armitage OB, Logan K (2007) Impact of climate change on area burned in Alberta’s boreal forest. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 153–160.
| Impact of climate change on area burned in Alberta’s boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vogt CA, Winter G, Fried JS (2005) Predicting homeowners’ approval of fuel management at the wildland–urban interface using the theory of reasoned action. Society & Natural Resources 18, 337–354.
| Predicting homeowners’ approval of fuel management at the wildland–urban interface using the theory of reasoned action.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Winter G, Fried JS (2000) Homeowner perspectives on fire hazard, responsibility and management strategies at the wildland–urban interface. Society & Natural Resources 13, 33–49.
| Homeowner perspectives on fire hazard, responsibility and management strategies at the wildland–urban interface.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
