Prescribed burning: how can it work to conserve the things we value?
T. D. Penman A B C J , F. J. Christie B D , A. N. Andersen B E , R. A. Bradstock B C , G. J. Cary B F , M. K. Henderson G , O. Price C , C. Tran H , G. M. Wardle I , R. J. Williams E and A. York B D
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Forest Science Centre, NSW Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 100, Beecroft, NSW 2119, Australia.
B Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre, Level 5, 340 Albert Street, East Melbourne, VIC 3002, Australia.
C Centre for Environmental Risk Management of Bushfires, Institute of Conservation Biology and Management, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
D Department of Forest and Ecosystem Science, University of Melbourne, Water Street, Creswick, VIC 3363, Australia.
E CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Tropical Ecosystems Research Centre, PMB 44 Winnellie, NT 0822, Australia.
F Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
G State Herbarium and Bioknowledge SA, Information, Science and Technology, Department for Environment and Heritage, PO Box 1047, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia.
H Griffith School of Environment, Centre for Innovative Conservation Strategies, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia.
I Institute of Wildlife Research and School of Biological Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
J Corresponding author: tpenman@uow.edu.au
International Journal of Wildland Fire 20(6) 721-733 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF09131
Submitted: 12 November 2009 Accepted: 28 November 2010 Published: 1 September 2011
Abstract
Prescribed burning is a commonly applied management tool, and there has been considerable debate over the efficacy of its application. We review data relating to the effectiveness of prescribed burning in Australia. Specifically, we address two questions: (1) to what extent can fuel reduction burning reduce the risk of loss of human life and economic assets posed from wildfires? (2) To what extent can prescribed burning be used to reduce the risk of biodiversity loss? Data suggest that prescribed burning can achieve a reduction in the extent of wildfires; however, at such levels, the result is an overall increase in the total area of the landscape burnt. Simulation modelling indicates that fuel reduction has less influence than weather on the extent of unplanned fire. The need to incorporate ecological values into prescribed burning programmes is becoming increasingly important. Insufficient data are available to determine if existing programs have been successful. There are numerous factors that prevent the implementation of better prescribed burning practices; most relate to a lack of clearly defined, measurable objectives. An adaptive risk management framework combined with enhanced partnerships between scientists and fire-management agencies is necessary to ensure that ecological and fuel reduction objectives are achieved.
Additional keywords: adaptive management, biodiversity, ecological burning, fuel reduction burning.
References
Agee JK, Skinner CN (2005) Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 211, 83–96.| Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Andersen AN (1999) Cross-cultural conflicts in fire management in northern Australia: not so black and white. Conservation Ecology 3, 6 .
Andersen AN, Cook GD, Williams RJ (2003) ‘Fire in Tropical Savannas: the Kapalga Fire Experiment.’ (Springer-Verlag: New York)
Andersen AN, Cook GD, Corbett LK, Douglas MM, Eager RW, Russell-Smith J, Setterfield SA, Williams RJ, Woinarski JCZ (2005) Fire frequency and biodiversity conservation in Australian tropical savannas: implications from the Kapalga fire experiment. Austral Ecology 30, 155–167.
| Fire frequency and biodiversity conservation in Australian tropical savannas: implications from the Kapalga fire experiment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Andrew N, Rodgerson L, York A (2000) Frequent fuel-reduction burning: the role of logs and associated leaf litter in the conservation of ant biodiversity. Austral Ecology 25, 99–107.
| Frequent fuel-reduction burning: the role of logs and associated leaf litter in the conservation of ant biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anonymous (2004) ‘Guidelines for Ecologically Sustainable Fire Management: NSW Biodiversity Strategy.’ (National Parks and Wildlife Service: Sydney)
Anonymous (2008) ‘Inquiry into the Impact of Public Land Management on Bushfires in Victoria.’ (Victorian Parliament, Environment and Natural Resources Committee: Melbourne)
Beadle NCW (1981) ‘The Vegetation of Australia.’ (Cambridge University Press: Sydney, Australia)
Bell DT (1999) Turner review no. 1 – the process of germination in Australian species. Australian Journal of Botany 47, 475–517.
| Turner review no. 1 – the process of germination in Australian species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bell T, Oliveras I (2006) Perceptions of prescribed burning in a local forest community in Victoria, Australia. Environmental Management 38, 867–878.
| Perceptions of prescribed burning in a local forest community in Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Binns DL, Bridges RG (2003) Ecological impacts and sustainability of timber harvesting and burning in coastal forests of the Eden area: establishment and progress of the Eden Burning Study. State Forests of New South Wales, Research and Development Division, Technical Paper 67. (Sydney)
Birk EM, Bridges RG (1989) Recurrent fires and fuel accumulation in even-aged blackbutt eucalyptus–pilularis forests. Forest Ecology and Management 29, 59–79.
| Recurrent fires and fuel accumulation in even-aged blackbutt eucalyptus–pilularis forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boer MM, Sadler RJ, Wittkuhn R, McCaw L, Grierson PF (2009) Long-term impacts of prescribed burning on regional extent and incidence of wildfires – evidence from fifty years of active fire management in SW Australian forests. Forest Ecology and Management 259, 132–142.
| Long-term impacts of prescribed burning on regional extent and incidence of wildfires – evidence from fifty years of active fire management in SW Australian forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bond WJ, van Wilgen BW (1996) ‘Fire and Plants.’ (Chapman and Hall: London)
Bond WJ, Woodward FI, Midgley GF (2005) The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytologist 165, 525–538.
| The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2M%2Fpt1OktQ%3D%3D&md5=b175ada0572066ceb07cc6834cd7bd56CAS |
Bowman DMJS (1998) The impact of Aboriginal landscape burning on the Australian biota. New Phytologist 140, 385–410.
| The impact of Aboriginal landscape burning on the Australian biota.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowman DMJS, Johnston FH (2005) Wildfire smoke, fire management, and human health. EcoHealth 2, 76–80.
| Wildfire smoke, fire management, and human health.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA (2008) Effects of large fires on biodiversity in south-eastern Australia: disaster or template for diversity? International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 809–822.
| Effects of large fires on biodiversity in south-eastern Australia: disaster or template for diversity?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA, Auld TD (1995) Soil temperatures during experimental bushfires in relation to fire intensity: consequences for legume germination and fire management in south-eastern Australia. Journal of Applied Ecology 32, 76–84.
| Soil temperatures during experimental bushfires in relation to fire intensity: consequences for legume germination and fire management in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA, Bedward M (1992) Simulation of the effect of season of fire on post-fire seedling emergence of two banksia species based on long-term rainfall records. Australian Journal of Botany 40, 75–88.
| Simulation of the effect of season of fire on post-fire seedling emergence of two banksia species based on long-term rainfall records.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA, Gill AM (2001) Living with fire and biodiversity at the urban edge: in search of a sustainable solution to the human protection problem in southern Australia. Journal of Mediterranean Ecology 2, 179–195. .
Bradstock RA, Kenny BJ (2003) An application of plant functional types to fire management in a conservation reserve in south-eastern Australia. Journal of Vegetation Science 14, 345–354.
| An application of plant functional types to fire management in a conservation reserve in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA, Keith DA, Auld TD (1995) ‘Fire and Conservation: Imperatives and Constraints on Managing for Diversity.’ (Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney)
Bradstock RA, Bedward M, Scott J, Keith DA (1996) Simulation of the effect of spatial and temporal variation in fire regimes on the population viability of a Banksia species. Conservation Biology 10, 776–784.
| Simulation of the effect of spatial and temporal variation in fire regimes on the population viability of a Banksia species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA, Tozer MG, Keith DA (1997) Effects of high-frequency fire on floristic composition and abundance in a fire-prone heathland near Sydney. Australian Journal of Botany 45, 641–655.
| Effects of high-frequency fire on floristic composition and abundance in a fire-prone heathland near Sydney.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA, Bedward M, Kenny BJ, Scott J (1998) Spatially explicit simulation of the effect of prescribed burning on fire regimes and plant extinctions in shrublands typical of south-eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 86, 83–95.
| Spatially explicit simulation of the effect of prescribed burning on fire regimes and plant extinctions in shrublands typical of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock RA, Williams JE, Gill AM (2002) ‘Flammable Australia: the Fire Regimes and Biodiversity of a Continent.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Bradstock RA, Bedward M, Gill AM, Cohn JS (2005) Which mosaic? A landscape ecological approach for evaluating interactions between fire regimes, habitat and animals. Wildlife Research 32, 409–423.
| Which mosaic? A landscape ecological approach for evaluating interactions between fire regimes, habitat and animals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bradstock R, Davies I, Price O, Cary G (2008) ‘Effects of Climate Change on Bushfire Threats to Biodiversity, Ecosystem Processes and People in the Sydney Region. Final Report to the New South Wales Department of Environment and Climate Change: Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Research Project 050831.’ (University of Wollongong: Sydney)
Bradstock R, Hammill K, Collins L, Price O (2010) Effects of weather, fuel and terrain on fire severity in topographically diverse landscapes of south-eastern Australia. Landscape Ecology 25, 607–619.
| Effects of weather, fuel and terrain on fire severity in topographically diverse landscapes of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Braithwaite RW (1995) A healthy savanna, endangered mammals and Aboriginal burning. In ‘Country in Flames’. (Ed. DB Rose) pp. 91–102. (Department of Education, Science and Training, Biodiversity Unit: Canberra, ACT)
Brennan KEC, Christie FJ, York A, Lawrence J (2006) Fuel for thought: do litter-dwelling invertebrates mediate fine fuel loads in frequently burnt eucalypt forests? Forest Ecology and Management 234, S163
| Fuel for thought: do litter-dwelling invertebrates mediate fine fuel loads in frequently burnt eucalypt forests?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brereton R, Bennett S, Mansergh I (1995) Enhanced greenhouse climate change and its potential effect on selected fauna of south-eastern Australia: a trend analysis. Biological Conservation 72, 339–354.
| Enhanced greenhouse climate change and its potential effect on selected fauna of south-eastern Australia: a trend analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brockett BH, Biggs HC, Wilgen BW (2001) A patch mosaic burning system for conservation areas in southern African savannas. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10, 169–183.
| A patch mosaic burning system for conservation areas in southern African savannas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brooks ML, D’Antonio CM, Richardson DM, Grace JB, Keeley JE, DiTomaso JM, Hobbs RJ, Pellant M, Pyke D (2004) Effects of invasive alien plants on fire regimes. Bioscience 54, 677–688.
| Effects of invasive alien plants on fire regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brunson MW, Evans J (2005) Badly burned? Effects of an escaped prescribed burn on social acceptability of wildland fuels treatments. Journal of Forestry 103, 134–138. .
Burrows ND (2008) Linking fire ecology and fire management in south-west Australian forest landscapes. Forest Ecology and Management 255, 2394–2406.
| Linking fire ecology and fire management in south-west Australian forest landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cary GJ (2002) Importance of a changing climate for fire regimes in Australia. In ‘Flammable Australia: the Fire Regimes and Biodiversity of a Continent’. (Eds RA Bradstock, JE Williams, AM Gill) (Cambridge University Press: Melbourne)
Cary GJ, Banks JCG (1999) Fire regime sensitivity to global climate change: an Australian perspective. In ‘Advances in Global Change Research’. (Eds JL Innes, MM Verstraete, M Beniston) pp. 233–246. (Kluwer Academic Publishers: Boston)
Cary GJ, Bradstock RA (2003) Sensitivity of fire regimes to management. In ‘Australia Burning: Fire Ecology, Policy and Management Issues’. (Eds GJ Cary, DB Lindenmayer, S Dovers) pp. 65–81. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Cary GJ, Morrison DA (1995) Effects of fire frequency on plant species composition of sandstone communities in the Sydney region: combinations of inter-fire intervals. Australian Journal of Ecology 20, 418–426.
| Effects of fire frequency on plant species composition of sandstone communities in the Sydney region: combinations of inter-fire intervals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cary GJ, Keane RK, Gardner RH, Lavorel S, Flannigan MD, Davies ID, Li C, Lenihan JM, Rupp TS, Mouillot F (2006) Comparison of the sensitivity of landscape–fire-succession models to variation in terrain, fuel pattern, climate and weather. Landscape Ecology 21, 121–137.
| Comparison of the sensitivity of landscape–fire-succession models to variation in terrain, fuel pattern, climate and weather.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cary GJ, Flannigan MD, Keane RE, Bradstock RA, Davies ID, Lenihan JM, Li C, Logan KA, Parsons RA (2009) Relative importance of fuel management, ignition management and weather for area burned: evidence from five landscape-fire-succession models. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 147–156.
| Relative importance of fuel management, ignition management and weather for area burned: evidence from five landscape-fire-succession models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Catling PC, Coops NC, Burt RJ (2001) The distribution and abundance of ground-dwelling mammals in relation to time since wildfire and vegetation structure in south-eastern Australia. Wildlife Research 28, 555–564.
| The distribution and abundance of ground-dwelling mammals in relation to time since wildfire and vegetation structure in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cawson J, Muir A (2008) Flora monitoring protocols for planned burning: a user’s guide. Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment, Fire and Adaptive Management, Report No 74. (Melbourne, Australia)
Cheney NP (2008) Can forestry manage bushfires in the future? Australian Forestry 71, 1–2. .
Christie FJ, York A (2009) No detectable impact of frequent fire on foliar N or C and invertebrate herbivory in an Australian eucalypt forest. Applied Vegetation Science 12, 376–384.
| No detectable impact of frequent fire on foliar N or C and invertebrate herbivory in an Australian eucalypt forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke MF (2008) Catering for the needs of fauna in fire management: science or just wishful thinking? Wildlife Research 35, 385–394.
| Catering for the needs of fauna in fire management: science or just wishful thinking?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke PJ, Knox KJE, Wills KE, Campbell M (2005) Landscape patterns of woody plant response to crown fire: disturbance and productivity influence sprouting ability Journal of Ecology 93, 544–555.
| Landscape patterns of woody plant response to crown fire: disturbance and productivity influence sprouting abilityCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cocke AE, Fule PZ, Crouse JE (2005) Forest change on a steep mountain gradient after extended fire exclusion: San Francisco Peaks, Arizona, USA. Journal of Applied Ecology 42, 814–823.
| Forest change on a steep mountain gradient after extended fire exclusion: San Francisco Peaks, Arizona, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Corbett LC, Andersen AN, Müller WJ (2003) Terrestrial vertebrates. In ‘Fire in Tropical Savannas: the Kapalga Experiment’. (Eds AN Andersen, GD Cook, RJ Williams) pp. 126–152. (Springer-Verlag: New York)
D’Antonio CM, Vitousek PM (1992) Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23, 63–87. .
Dixon K, Barrett R (2003) Defining the role of fire in south-west Western Australian plants. In ‘Fire in Ecosystems of South-west Western Australia: Impacts and Management’. (Eds I Abbott, N Burrows) pp. 205–223. (Backhuys Publishers: Leiden, the Netherlands)
Driscoll DA, Henderson MK (2008) How many common reptile species are fire specialists? A replicated natural experiment highlights the predictive weakness of a fire succession model. Biological Conservation 141, 460–471.
| How many common reptile species are fire specialists? A replicated natural experiment highlights the predictive weakness of a fire succession model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Driscoll DA, Roberts JD (1997) Impact of fuel reduction burning on the frog Geocrinia lutea in south-west Western Australia Australian Journal of Ecology 22, 334–339.
| Impact of fuel reduction burning on the frog Geocrinia lutea in south-west Western AustraliaCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ellis S, Kanowski P, Whelan R (2004) ‘National Inquiry on Bushfire Mitigation and Management.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)
Esplin B, Gill AM, Enright NJ (2003) ‘Report of the Inquiry into the 2002–03 Victorian Bushfires.’ (Department of Premier and Cabinet: Melbourne)
Fernandes PM, Botelho H (2003) A review of prescribed burning effectiveness in fire hazard reduction. International Journal of Wildland Fire 12, 117–128.
| A review of prescribed burning effectiveness in fire hazard reduction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Finney MA (2001) Design of regular landscape fuel treatment patterns for modifying fire growth and behavior. Forest Science 47, 219–228.
Friend GR (1993) Impact of fire on small vertebrates in mallee woodlands and heathlands of temperate Australia: a review. Biological Conservation 65, 99–114.
| Impact of fire on small vertebrates in mallee woodlands and heathlands of temperate Australia: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fulé PZ, Covington WW, Moore MM (1997) Determining reference conditions for ecosystem management of south-western ponderosa pine forests. Ecological Applications 7, 895–908.
| Determining reference conditions for ecosystem management of south-western ponderosa pine forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gent ML, Morgan JW (2007) Changes in the stand structure (1975–2000) of coastal Banksia forest in the long absence of fire. Austral Ecology 32, 239–244.
| Changes in the stand structure (1975–2000) of coastal Banksia forest in the long absence of fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gibbons P, Zammit C, Youngentob K, Possingham HP, Lindenmayer DB, Bekessy S, Burgman M, Colyvan M, Considine M, Felton A, Hobbs RJ, Hurley K, McAlpine C, McCarthy MA, Moore J, Robinson D, Salt D, Wintle B (2008) Some practical suggestions for improving engagement between researchers and policy-makers in natural resource management. Ecological Management & Restoration 9, 182–186.
| Some practical suggestions for improving engagement between researchers and policy-makers in natural resource management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gill AM (1975) Fire and the Australian flora: a review. Australian Forestry 38, 4–25. .
Gill AM (1999) Biodiversity and bushfires: an Australia-wide perspective on plant-species changes after a fire event. In ‘Australia’s Biodiversity – Responses to Fire: Plants, Birds and Invertebrates. Environment Australia Biodiversity Technical Paper No. 1’. (Eds AM Gill, JCZ Woinarski, A York) pp. 9–53. (Department of the Environment and Heritage: Canberra, ACT)
Gill AM, Bradstock RA (1995) Extinction of biota by fires. In ‘Conserving Biodiversity: Threats and Solutions’. (Eds R Bradstock, TD Auld, DA Keith, RT Kingsford, DSDP Lunney) pp. 309–322. (Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney)
Gill AM, Bradstock RA (2003) Fire regimes and biodiversity: a set of postulates. In ‘Australia Burning: Fire Ecology, Policy and Management Issues’. (Eds GJ Cary, DB Lindenmeyer, S Dovers) pp. 15–25. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Gill AM, McCarthy MA (1998) Intervals between prescribed fires in Australia: what intrinsic variation should apply? Biological Conservation 85, 161–169.
| Intervals between prescribed fires in Australia: what intrinsic variation should apply?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gill AM, Moore PHR (1997) Contemporary Fire Regimes in the Forests of South-western Australia. Contract Report for Environment Australia. (Canberra, ACT)
Grant S, Wouters M (1993) The effect of fuel reduction burning on the suppression of four wildfires in western Victoria. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Fire Research Report No. 41. (Melbourne)
Griffiths AD, Christian KA (1996) The effects of fire on the frillneck lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii) in northern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 21, 386–398.
| The effects of fire on the frillneck lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii) in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Groves RH (1994) ‘Australian Vegetation.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Haynes CD (1985) The pattern and ecology of munwag: traditional Aboriginal fire regimes in north-central Arnhem Land. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 13, 201–214. .
Hennessy KJ, Lucas C, Nicholls N, Bathols J, Suppiah R, Ricketts J (2005) ‘Climate Change Impacts on Fire-weather in South-east Australia.’ (CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research: Melbourne)
Hesseln H (2000) The economics of prescribed burning: a research review. Forest Science 46, 322–334. .
Higgins SI, Bond WJ, Trollope WSW (2000) Fire, resprouting and variability: a recipe for grass-tree coexistence in savanna. Journal of Ecology 88, 213–229.
| Fire, resprouting and variability: a recipe for grass-tree coexistence in savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hodgson A (1968) Control burning in eucalypt forests in Victoria Australia. Journal of Forestry 8, 601–605. .
Holling CS (1978) ‘Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management.’ (Wiley: New York)
Holling CS, Meffe GK (1996) Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management. Conservation Biology 10, 328–337.
| Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Horton DR (1982) The burning question: Aborigines, fire and Australian ecosystems. Mankind 13, 237–252.
| The burning question: Aborigines, fire and Australian ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hughes L (2003) Climate change and Australia: trends, projections and impacts. Austral Ecology 28, 423–443.
| Climate change and Australia: trends, projections and impacts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huston MA (2003) Understanding the effects of fire and other mortality-causing disturbances on species diversity. In ‘Fire in South-Western Australian Forests: Impacts and Management’. (Eds NC Burrows, I Abbott) pp. 51–84. (Backhuys Publishers: Leiden, the Netherlands)
Jones R (1969) Fire-stick farming. Australian Natural History 16, 224–228.
Kappelle M, Van Vuuren MMI, Baas P (1999) Effects of climate change on biodiversity: a review and identification of key research issues. Biodiversity and Conservation 8, 1383–1397.
| Effects of climate change on biodiversity: a review and identification of key research issues.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keith DA (1996) Fire-driven extinction of plant populations: a synthesis of theory and review of evidence from Australian vegetation. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 116, 37–78. .
Keith DA, Williams JE, Woinarski JCZ (2002) Fire management and biodiversity conservation: key approaches and principles. In ‘Flammable Australia: the Fire Regimes and Biodiversity of a Continent’. (Eds RA Bradstock, JE Williams, AM Gill) pp. 401–425. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Kenny B, Sutherland E, Tasker E, Bradstock R (2004) ‘Guidelines for Ecologically Sustainable Fire Management.’ (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service: Hurstville, NSW)
Kimmerer RW, Lake FK (2001) The role of indigenous burning in land management. Journal of Forestry 99, 36–41. .
King KJ, Cary GJ, Bradstock RA, Chapman J, Pyrke A, Marsden-Smedley JB (2006) Simulation of prescribed burning strategies in south-west Tasmania, Australia: effects on unplanned fires, fire regimes, and ecological management values. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 527–540.
| Simulation of prescribed burning strategies in south-west Tasmania, Australia: effects on unplanned fires, fire regimes, and ecological management values.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
King KJ, Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Chapman J, Marsden-Smedley JB (2008) The relative importance of fine-scale fuel mosaics on reducing fire risk in south-west Tasmania, Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 421–430.
| The relative importance of fine-scale fuel mosaics on reducing fire risk in south-west Tasmania, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krusel N, Petris SN (1992) ‘A Study of Civilian Deaths in the 1983 Ash Wednesday Bushfires, Victoria, Australia.’ (Country Fire Authority: Melbourne)
Lang S, Gill AM (1997) Contemporary fire regimes in the forests of south-western Australia. Appendix 3. Contract Report for Environment Australia. (Canberra)
Langton M (1998) ‘Burning Questions: Emerging Environmental Issues for Indigenous Peoples in Northern Australia.’ (Centre for Indigenous, Natural and Cultural Resource Management, Northern Territory University: Darwin, NT)
Laris P (2002) Burning the seasonal mosaic: preventative burning strategies in the wooded savanna of southern Mali. Human Ecology 30, 155–186.
| Burning the seasonal mosaic: preventative burning strategies in the wooded savanna of southern Mali.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lewis HT (1989) Ecological and technological knowledge of fire: Aborigines versus park rangers in northern Australia. American Anthropologist 91, 940–961.
| Ecological and technological knowledge of fire: Aborigines versus park rangers in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liedloff AC, Cook GD (2007) Modelling the effects of rainfall variability and fire on tree populations in an Australian tropical savanna with the FLAMES simulation model. Ecological Modelling 201, 269–282.
| Modelling the effects of rainfall variability and fire on tree populations in an Australian tropical savanna with the FLAMES simulation model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lowe T, Haynes K, Byrne G (2008) Resilience at the urban interface: the Community Fire Unit approach. In ‘Community Bushfire Safety’. (Eds J Handmer, K Haynes) pp. 21–34. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Lunt ID (1998) Allocasuarina (Casuarinaceae) invasion of an unburnt coastal woodland at Ocean Grove, Victoria: structural changes 1971–1996. Australian Journal of Botany 46, 649–656.
| Allocasuarina (Casuarinaceae) invasion of an unburnt coastal woodland at Ocean Grove, Victoria: structural changes 1971–1996.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lunt ID, Morgan JW (1999) Effect of fire frequency on plant composition at the Laverton North Grassland Reserve, Victoria. Victorian Naturalist 116, 84–90. .
McCarthy MA, Possingham HP (2007) Active adaptive management for conservation. Conservation Biology 21, 956–963.
| Active adaptive management for conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCarthy MA, Gill AM, Lindenmayer DB (1999) Fire regimes in mountain ash forest: evidence from forest age structure, extinction models and wildlife habitat. Forest Ecology and Management 124, 193–203.
| Fire regimes in mountain ash forest: evidence from forest age structure, extinction models and wildlife habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCarthy MA, Possingham HP, Gill AM (2001) Using stochastic dynamic programming to determine optimal fire management for Banksia ornata. Journal of Applied Ecology 38, 585–592.
| Using stochastic dynamic programming to determine optimal fire management for Banksia ornata.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCaw WL (1988) Regeneration of Acacia and Kennedia from soil-stored seed following an autumn fire in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 71, 1–6. .
McCaw WL, Neal JE, Smith RH (2002) Stand characteristics and fuel accumulation in a sequence of even-aged karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) stands in south-west Western Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 158, 263–271.
| Stand characteristics and fuel accumulation in a sequence of even-aged karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) stands in south-west Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McLeod R (2003) Inquiry into the Operational Response to the January 2003 Bushfires in the ACT. Information Planning and Services, Department of Urban Services, ACT Government (Canberra, ACT)
Meynecke J-O (2004) Effects of global climate change on geographic distributions of vertebrates in north Queensland. Ecological Modelling 174, 347–357.
| Effects of global climate change on geographic distributions of vertebrates in north Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morgan JW, Lunt ID (1999) Effects of time-since-fire on the tussock dynamics of a dominant grass (Themeda triandra) in a temperate Australian grassland. Biological Conservation 88, 379–386.
| Effects of time-since-fire on the tussock dynamics of a dominant grass (Themeda triandra) in a temperate Australian grassland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morrison DA (2002) Effects of fire intensity on plant species composition of sandstone communities in the Sydney region. Austral Ecology 27, 433–441.
| Effects of fire intensity on plant species composition of sandstone communities in the Sydney region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morrison DA, Buckney RT, Bewiock BJ, Cary GJ (1996) Conservation conflicts over burning bush in south-eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 76, 167–175.
| Conservation conflicts over burning bush in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nieuwenhuis A (1987) The effect of fire frequency on the sclerophyll vegetation of the West Head, New South Wales, Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 12, 373–385.
| The effect of fire frequency on the sclerophyll vegetation of the West Head, New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Noble IR, Slatyer RO (1980) The use of vital attributes to predict successional changes in plant communities subject to recurrent disturbances. Vegetatio 43, 5–21.
| The use of vital attributes to predict successional changes in plant communities subject to recurrent disturbances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ogden J, Basher L, McGlone MS (1998) Fire, forest regeneration and links with early human habitation: evidence from New Zealand. Annals of Botany 81, 687–696.
| Fire, forest regeneration and links with early human habitation: evidence from New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oliveras I, Bell T (2008) An analysis of the Australian literature on prescribed burning. Journal of Forestry 106, 31–37. .
Ooi MKJ, Auld TD, Whelan RJ (2004) Delayed post-fire seedling emergence linked to season: a case study with Leucopogon species (Epacridaceae). Plant Ecology 174, 183–196.
| Delayed post-fire seedling emergence linked to season: a case study with Leucopogon species (Epacridaceae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ooi MKJ, Whelan RJ, Auld TD (2006) Persistence of obligate-seeding species at the population scale: effects of fire intensity, fire patchiness and long fire-free intervals. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 261–269.
| Persistence of obligate-seeding species at the population scale: effects of fire intensity, fire patchiness and long fire-free intervals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parr CL, Andersen AN (2006) Patch mosaic burning for biodiversity conservation: a critique of the pyrodiversity paradigm. Conservation Biology 20, 1610–1619.
| Patch mosaic burning for biodiversity conservation: a critique of the pyrodiversity paradigm.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pausas JG, Bradstock RA, Keith DA, Keeley JE, Global CTE (2004) Plant functional traits in relation to fire in crown-fire ecosystems. Ecology 85, 1085–1100.
| Plant functional traits in relation to fire in crown-fire ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Penman TD, Towerton AL (2008) Are soil temperatures during autumn prescribed burning sufficient to trigger germination in fire responsive species? International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 572–578.
| Are soil temperatures during autumn prescribed burning sufficient to trigger germination in fire responsive species?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Penman TD, Kavanagh RP, Binns DL, Melick DR (2007) Patchiness of prescribed burns in dry sclerophyll eucalypt forests in south-eastern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 252, 24–32.
| Patchiness of prescribed burns in dry sclerophyll eucalypt forests in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Penman TD, Binns DL, Kavanagh RP (2008) Quantifying successional changes in response to forest disturbance. Applied Vegetation Science 11, 261–268.
| Quantifying successional changes in response to forest disturbance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Penman TD, Binns DL, Shiels RJ, Allen RM, Kavanagh RP (2008) Changes in understorey plant species richness following logging and prescribed burning in shrubby dry sclerophyll forests of south-eastern Australia. Austral Ecology 33, 197–210.
| Changes in understorey plant species richness following logging and prescribed burning in shrubby dry sclerophyll forests of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Penman TD, Binns DL, Kavanagh RP (2009) Patch occupancy modelling as a method for monitoring changes in forest floristics: a case study in south-eastern Australia. Conservation Biology 23, 740–749.
| Patch occupancy modelling as a method for monitoring changes in forest floristics: a case study in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Policansky D (1998) Science and decision-making for water resources. Ecological Applications 8, 610–618.
| Science and decision-making for water resources.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Press AJ (1987) Fire management in Kakadu National Park: the ecological basis for the active use of fire. Search 18, 244–248. .
Price OF, Bradstock RA (2010) The effect of fuel age on the spread of fire in sclerophyll forest in the Sydney region of Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 35–45.
| The effect of fuel age on the spread of fire in sclerophyll forest in the Sydney region of Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pyne SJ (1992) ‘Burning Bush: a Fire History of Australia.’ (Allen and Unwin: Sydney)
Rawson R, Billing P, Rees B (1985) Effectiveness of fuel reduction burning (10 case studies). Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Research Report Number 25. (Melbourne)
Reinhardt ED, Keane RE, Calkin DE, Cohn JD (2008) Objectives and considerations for wildland fuel treatment in forested ecosystems of the interior western United States. Forest Ecology and Management 256, 1997–2006.
| Objectives and considerations for wildland fuel treatment in forested ecosystems of the interior western United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Romme WH (1982) Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Monographs 52, 199–221.
| Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Russell-Smith J (1995) Fire management in Kakadu. In ‘Kakadu: Natural and Cultural Heritage and Management’. (Eds AJ Press, DAM Lea, AL Webb, AD Graham) pp. 217–223. (Australian Nature Conservation Agency/North Australian Research Unit: Darwin, NT)
Russell-Smith J (2002) Pre-contact Aboriginal and contemporary fire regimes of the savanna landscapes of northern Australia: patterns, changes and ecological processes. In ‘Australian Fire Regimes: Contemporary Patterns (April 1998–March 2000) and Changes since European Settlement, Australia State of the Environment Second Technical Paper Series (Biodiversity)’. (Eds J Russell-Smith, R Craig, AM Gill, R Smith, J Williams) (Department of the Environment and Heritage: Canberra, ACT)
Russell-Smith J, Yates CP, Whitehead PJ, Smith R, Craig R, Allan GE, Thackway R, Frakes I, Cridland S, Meyer MCP, Gill AM (2007) Bushfires ‘down under’: patterns and implications of contemporary Australian landscape burning. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 361–377.
| Bushfires ‘down under’: patterns and implications of contemporary Australian landscape burning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saxon EC (1984) ‘Anticipating the Inevitable: a Patch-burn Strategy for Fire Management at Uluru (Ayers Rock–Mount Olga) National Park.’ (CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Rangelands Research: Alice Springs, NT)
Schultz B (2008) ‘Prescribed Burning in Western Australian Forests.’ Available at http://www.green.net.au/boycott/archive/wdchip2.htm [Verified September 2008]
Stevenson PM (1985) Traditional Aboriginal resource management in the wet–dry tropics: Tiwi case study. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 13, 309–315. .
Stocker GC, Mott JJ (1981) Fire in the tropical forests and woodlands of northern Australia. In ‘Fire and the Australian Biota’. (Eds AM Gill, RH Groves, IR Noble) pp. 425–439. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra, ACT)
Suffling R, Lihou C, Morand Y (1988) Control of landscape diversity by catastrophic disturbance: a theory and a case study of fire in a Canadian boreal forest. Environmental Management 12, 73–78.
| Control of landscape diversity by catastrophic disturbance: a theory and a case study of fire in a Canadian boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Suppiah R, Hennessy KJ, Whetton PH, McInnes K, Macadam I, Bathols J, Ricketts J, Page CM (2007) Australian climate change projections derived from simulations performed for the IPCC 4th Assessment Report. Australian Meteorological Magazine 56, 131–152. .
Swaine MD, Hawthorne WD, Orgle TK (1992) The effects of fire exclusion on savanna vegetation at Kpong, Ghana. Biotropica 24, 166–172.
| The effects of fire exclusion on savanna vegetation at Kpong, Ghana.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Theurillat JP, Guisan A (2001) Potential impact of climate change on vegetation in the European Alps: a review. Climatic Change 50, 77–109.
| Potential impact of climate change on vegetation in the European Alps: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXmtlGhtr0%3D&md5=4bda0106bd780d517dd58e5bc5ed3be4CAS |
Tolhurst KG (1992) Fire effects study program, Wombat State Forest – Description of sites and experimental design: Forest Research Report No. 349. Department of Conservation and Environment. (Melbourne)
Tolhurst KG, Flinn DW, Loyn RH, Wilson AAG, Foletta I (1992) ‘Ecological Effects of Fuel Reduction Burning in a Dry Sclerophyll Forest: a Summary of Principal Research Findings and Their Management Implications.’ (Forest Research Centre, Department of Conservation and Environment: Melbourne)
Tran C, Gilroy J, Williams PR (2008) Quantifying the fuel load and fire hazard in a wet sclerophyll community of south-east Queensland, following invasion by the woody weed Lantana camara. In ‘FIRE2008 International Fire Congress’, 1–3 September 2008, Adelaide, SA. p. 11. (Australasian Fire Association Council and Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre: Melbourne)
Turner MG, Romme WH (1994) Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems. Landscape Ecology 9, 59–77.
| Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turner NJ, Ignace MB, Ignace R (2000) Traditional ecological knowledge and wisdom of Aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Ecological Applications 10, 1275–1287.
| Traditional ecological knowledge and wisdom of Aboriginal peoples in British Columbia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Underwood RJ, Sneeuwjagt RJ, Styles HG (1985) The contribution of prescribed burning to forest fire control in Western Australia: case studies. In ‘Symposium on Fire Ecology and Management of Western Australian Ecosystems’. (Ed. JR Ford) WA Institute of Technology (WAIT) Environmental Studies Group Report No. 14, pp. 153–170. (Perth)
Vivian LM, Cary GJ, Bradstock RA, Gill AM (2008) Influence of fire severity on the regeneration, recruitment and distribution of eucalypts in the Cotter River Catchment, Australian Capital Territory. Austral Ecology 33, 55–67.
| Influence of fire severity on the regeneration, recruitment and distribution of eucalypts in the Cotter River Catchment, Australian Capital Territory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watson P (2006) Concepts, characteristics, competition: tools in the search for sustainable fire regimes. In ‘Proceedings of the 10th Biennial Australasian Bushfire Conference Series, Bushfire2006: Life in a Fire-Prone Environment: Translating Science into Practice’, 6–9 June 2006, Brisbane. (Ed. C Tran) (Griffith University: Brisbane)
Watson P, Wardell-Johnson G (2004) Fire frequency and time-since-fire effects on the open-forest and woodland flora of Girraween National Park, south-east Queensland, Australia. Austral Ecology 29, 225–236.
| Fire frequency and time-since-fire effects on the open-forest and woodland flora of Girraween National Park, south-east Queensland, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW (2006) Warming and earlier spring increase western US forest wildfire activity. Science 313, 940–943.
| Warming and earlier spring increase western US forest wildfire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XotFCitbo%3D&md5=0c50ad3f867d0006079217644781016cCAS |
Whelan RJ (1995) ‘Fire Ecology.’ (Cambridge University Press: Melbourne)
Williams AAJ, Karoly DJ, Tapper N (2001) The sensitivity of Australian fire danger to climate change. Climatic Change 49, 171–191.
| The sensitivity of Australian fire danger to climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXktVOht7c%3D&md5=b1a11c343859c65f3ee15e28ddafd0cfCAS |
Williams RJ, Cook GD, Gill AM, Moore PHR (1999) Fire regime, fire intensity and tree survival in a tropical savanna in northern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 24, 50–59.
| Fire regime, fire intensity and tree survival in a tropical savanna in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams RJ, Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Enright NJ, Gill AM, Lucas C, Whelan RJ, Andersen AN, Bowman DJMS, Clarke PJ, Cook GD, Hennessy KJ, Liedloff A, York A (2009) ‘The Impact of Climate Change on Fire Regimes and Biodiversity in Australia – a Preliminary National Assessment.’ (CSIRO: Darwin, NT)
Wintle BA, Lindenmayer DB (2008) Adaptive risk management for certifiably sustainable forestry. Forest Ecology and Management 256, 1311–1319.
| Adaptive risk management for certifiably sustainable forestry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woinarski JCZ, Risler J, Kean L (2004) Response of vegetation and vertebrate fauna to 23 years of fire exclusion in a tropical Eucalyptus open forest, Northern Territory, Australia. Austral Ecology 29, 156–176.
| Response of vegetation and vertebrate fauna to 23 years of fire exclusion in a tropical Eucalyptus open forest, Northern Territory, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
York A (1996) Long-term effects of fuel reduction burning on invertebrates in a dry sclerophyll forest. In ‘Fire and Biodiversity. The Effects and Effectiveness of Fire Management. Biodiversity Series Paper No. 8’. pp. 163–181. (Department of Environment, Sport and Territories: Canberra, ACT)
York A (2000) Long-term effects of frequent low-intensity burning on ant communities in coastal blackbutt forests of south-eastern Australia. Austral Ecology 25, 83–98.
| Long-term effects of frequent low-intensity burning on ant communities in coastal blackbutt forests of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
