Register      Login
Sexual Health Sexual Health Society
Publishing on sexual health from the widest perspective
Shopping Cart: ( empty )
You are here: Home > Journals > SH > SH24165
RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)
Contents Vol 22(1)

Factors influencing experiences of non-consensual sex: results from a mixed data cross-sectional online survey of Australian university students

Kathryn Wenham https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0585-7866 A * , Jo Durham B , Amy B. Mullens https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0939-9842 C , Annette Brömdal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1307-1794 D , Joseph Debattista E , Gianna Parma F , Zhihong Gu G , Armin Ariana H , Charles F. Gilks I , Sara F. E. Bell I and Judith A. Dean https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2513-2013 I
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A School of Health, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia.

B School of Public Health and Social Work, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.

C School of Psychology and Wellbeing, Centre for Health Research, Institute for Resilient Regions, University of Southern Queensland, Ipswich, Qld, Australia.

D School of Education, Centre for Health Research, Institute for Resilient Regions, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Qld, Australia

E Metro North Public Health Unit, Metro North Health, Windsor, Qld, Australia.

F True Relationships and Reproductive Health, Windsor, Qld, Australia.

G Ethnic Communities Council of Queensland, West End, Qld, Australia.

H School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, Nathan, Qld, Australia.

I School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.

* Correspondence to: kwenham@usc.edu.au

Handling Editor: Chunyan Li

Sexual Health 22, SH24165 https://doi.org/10.1071/SH24165
Submitted: 22 August 2024  Accepted: 3 January 2025  Published: 28 January 2025

© 2025 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Background

The high prevalence of non-consensual sex, including physical force, verbal threats, intimidation, and/or verbal coercion and rape among university students, has prompted urgent calls for action from governments, statutory, and university bodies. This research aims to identify key factors students see as contributing to non-consensual sex with a view to developing effective strategies to address these issues.

Methods

An online cross-sectional survey was administered to 4291 university students attending universities in south-east Queensland, Australia. Participants were recruited via email, print media, and face-to-face invitations. The survey contained closed and open-ended questions on a range of sexual health knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours, including non-consensual sexual experiences. A subset of students (n = 199) who responded ‘yes’ to engaging in sexual acts against their consent were the primary participants for this paper. Descriptive statistical analysis and thematic analysis, employing the theory of planned behaviour, were conducted using the quantitative and qualitative data regarding non-consensual sex, respectively.

Results

Immediate and longer-term fear and partner eagerness were the most commonly identified influences on non-consensual sex. An inability to give consent due to lack of consciousness or intoxication were also frequently cited factors contributing to non-consensual sex.

Conclusions

Interventions acknowledging and addressing sociocultural factors are needed. Sexuality and relationship education encompassing effective communication, relationship boundaries, and safe use of alcohol and drugs could substantially reduce the incidence of non-consensual sex. Importantly, such education should be non-judgmental and place greater responsibility on perpetrators than victim-survivors.

Keywords: affirmative consent, Australia, non-consensual sex, planned behaviour, sexual consent, sexuality and relationship education, university students, victim survivors.

References

1  Gala S, Gross-Schafer A. Sexual assault: the crisis that blindsided higher education. Int J Soc Sci Stud 2016; 4(8): 23-41.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

2  Universities Australia. Respect. Now. Always. Universities Australia; 2016. Available at https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/project/respect-now-always/

3  Australian Human Rights Commission. Change the course: national report on sexual assault and sexual harassment at Australian universities. Australian Human Rights Commission; 2017.

4  Heywood W, Myers P, Powell A, Meikle G, Nguyen D. National Student Safety Survey: report on the prevalence of sexual harassment and sexual assault among university students in 2021. Melbourne: The Social Research Centre; 2022. Available at https://universitiesaustralia.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/2021-NSSS-National-Report.pdf [cited 16 November 2023]

5  Franklin LE. #MeToo and U.: the effect of ineffectual sexual assault remedies at universities and how #MeToo could affect the pandemic of underreporting. Elon Law J 2019; 11(1): 223-45.
| Google Scholar |

6  Muehlenhard CL, Humphreys TP, Jozkowski KN, Peterson ZD. The complexities of sexual consent among college students: a conceptual and empirical review. J Sex Res 2016; 53(4-5): 457-87.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

7  Spencer C, Stith S, Durtschi J, Toews M. Factors related to college students’ decisions to report sexual assault. J Interpers Violence 2020; 35(21-22): 4666-85.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

8  Parker A, Harris P, Haire B. International students’ views on sexual health: a qualitative study at an Australian university. Sex Health 2020; 17(3): 231-8.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

9  North A. Legislating consent in sexual relations: how significant is the move to affirmative consent? Altern Law J 2023; 48(1): 5-10.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

10  Woodley GN, Jacques C, Jaunzems K, Green L. Mandatory consent education is a huge win for Australia – but consent is just one small part of navigating relationships. The Conversation; 2022. Available at https://theconversation.com/mandatory-consent-education-is-a-huge-win-for-australia-but-consent-is-just-one-small-part-of-navigating-relationships-177456 [cited 17 September 2023]

11  Willis M, Jozkowski KN. Barriers to the success of affirmative consent initiatives: an application of the social ecological model. Am J Sex Educ 2018; 13(3): 324-36.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

12  Curtis JN, Burnett S. Affirmative consent: what do college student leaders think about “yes means yes” as the standard for sexual behavior? Am J Sex Educ 2017; 12(3): 201-14.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

13  Ortiz R. Explicit, voluntary, and conscious: assessment of the importance of adopting an affirmative consent definition for sexual assault prevention programming on college campuses. J Health Commun 2019; 24(9): 728-35.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

14  Gilbert J. Contesting consent in sex education. Sex Educ 2018; 18(3): 268-79.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

15  Richmond KP, Peterson ZD. Perceived sex education and its association with consent attitudes, intentions, and communication. Am J Sex Educ 2020; 15(1): 1-24.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

16  Bragg S, Ponsford R, Meiksin R, Emmerson L, Bonell C. Dilemmas of school-based relationships and sexuality education for and about consent. Sex Educ 2021; 21(3): 269-83.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

17  de Heer B, Brown M, Cheney J. Sexual consent and communication among the sexual minoritized: the role of heteronormative sex education, trauma, and dual identities. Fem Criminol 2021; 16(5): 701-21.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

18  Engstrom T, Waller M, Mullens AB, Debattista J, Durham J, Gu Z, et al. STI and HIV testing: examining factors that influence uptake among domestic Australian-born, domestic overseas-born and international tertiary students studying in Australia. BMC Public Health 2023; 23(1): 505.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

19  Dean J, Mitchell M, Stewart D, Debattista J. Sexual health knowledge and behaviour of young Sudanese Queenslanders: a cross-sectional study. Sex Health 2017; 14(3): 254-60.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

20  Mitchell A, Patrick K, Heywood W, Blackman P, Pitts M. National survey of Australian secondary students and sexual health 2013. Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex Health and Society & La Trobe University; 2014.

21  Australian Bureau of Statistics. Sample size calculator. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics; 2018. Available at https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/d3310114.nsf/home/sample+size+calculator [cited 2018]

22  Simpson S, Clifford C, Ross K, Sefton N, Owen L, Blizzard L, et al. Sexual health literacy of the student population of the University of Tasmania: results of the RUSSL Study. Sex Health 2015; 12(3): 207-16.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

23  Johnson AM, Copas AJ, Erens B, Mandalia S, Fenton K, Korovessis C, et al. Effect of computer-assisted self-interviews on reporting of sexual HIV risk behaviours in a general population sample: a methodological experiment. AIDS 2001; 15(1): 111-5.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

24  Harris PA, Taylor R, Thielke R, Payne J, Gonzalez N, Conde JG. Research electronic data capture (REDCap) – a metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. J Biomed Inform 2009; 42(2): 377-81.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

25  Ferguson H, Sherrell H. Overseas students in Australian higher education: a quick guide. Parliament of Australia; 2019.

26  Ajzen I. The theory of planned behavior. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 1991; 50(2): 179-211.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

27  Hermann C, Liang CTH, DeSipio BE. Exploring sexual consent and hostile masculine norms using the theory of planned behavior. Psychol Men Masc 2018; 19(4): 491-9.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

28  Humphreys TP, Brousseau MM. The sexual consent scale–revised: development, reliability, and preliminary validity. J Sex Res 2010; 47(5): 420-8.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

29  Steele B, Martin M, Sciarra A, Melendez-Torres GJ, Degli Esposti M, Humphreys DK. The prevalence of sexual assault among higher education students: a systematic review with meta-analyses. Trauma Violence Abuse 2024; 25(3): 1885-98.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

30  Sable MR, Danis F, Mauzy DL, Gallagher SK. Barriers to reporting sexual assault for women and men: perspectives of college students. J Am Coll Health 2006; 55(3): 157-62.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

31  Thomas JC, Kopel J. Male victims of sexual assault: a review of the literature. Behav Sci 2023; 13(4): 304.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

32  Levi MM, McKee SE, Lynch KR, Renzetti CM, Lippert A, Golding JM. Perceptions of male-perpetrated sexual assault: the impact of victim gender and perceived sexual orientation. Psychol Sex Orientat Gend Divers 2024;
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

33  Chapleau KM, Oswald DL, Russell BL. Male rape myths: the role of gender, violence, and sexism. J Interpers Violence 2008; 23(5): 600-15.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

34  Graham R. Male rape and the careful construction of the male victim. Soc Legal Stud 2006; 15(2): 187-208.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

35  Bates EA. “Walking on egg shells”: a qualitative examination of men’s experiences of intimate partner violence. Psychol Men Masc 2020; 21: 13-24.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

36  Machado A, Hines D, Douglas EM. Male victims of female-perpetrated partner violence: a qualitative analysis of men’s experiences, the impact of violence, and perceptions of their worth. Psychol Men Masc 2020; 21(4): 612-21.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

37  Youstin T. Affirmative consent on campus: student understanding, perceptions of effectiveness, and behavioral change. Crim Justice Stud 2022; 35(2): 162-81.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

38  Gavey N. Just sex?: the cultural scaffolding of rape, 2nd edn. NewYork: Routledge; 2005.

39  Balint S. Women’s experiences of sexual agency under constrained choice: a systematic review. Psychol Women Q 2024; 48(4): 491-512.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

40  Jensen MB, Herold MD, Frank VA, Hunt G. Playing with gender borders: flirting and alcohol consumption among young adults in Denmark. Nord Stud Alcohol Drugs 2019; 36(4): 357-72.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

41  Davidson L, Mefodeva V, Walter Z, Hides L. Student perceptions of the current drinking culture in three Australian residential colleges: drinking motives, consequences and recommendations for harm minimisation strategies. Drug Alcohol Rev 2023; 42(1): 135-45.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

42  Abbey A. Alcohol-related sexual assault: a common problem among college students. J Stud Alcohol Suppl [s14] 2002; 118-28.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

43  Hallett J, McManus A, Maycock BR, Smith J, Howat PM. ‘Excessive drinking – an inescapable part of university life?’ A focus group study of Australian undergraduates. Open J Prev Med 2014; 4: 616-29.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

44  Strandberg AK, Elgan TH, Jägerskog M, Gripenberg J. Alcohol policies and attitudes toward alcohol prevention at Swedish student unions. Nord Stud Alcohol Drugs 2019; 36: 51-60.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

45  Martinez T, Wiersma-Mosley JD, Jozkowski KN, Becnel J. “Good Guys Don’t Rape”: Greek and non-Greek college student perpetrator rape myths. Behav Sci 2018; 8(7): 60.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

46  Marzell M, Bavarian N, Paschall MJ, Mair C, Saltz RF. Party characteristics, drinking settings, and college students’ risk of intoxication: a multi-campus study. J Prim Prev 2015; 36(4): 247-58.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

47  Bourdieu P. The logic of practice. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; 1990.

48  Jozkowski KN, Peterson ZD, Sanders SA, Dennis B, Reece M. Gender differences in heterosexual college students’ conceptualizations and indicators of sexual consent: implications for contemporary sexual assault prevention education. J Sex Res 2014; 51(8): 904-16.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

49  Rossetto KR, Tollison AC. Feminist agency, sexual scripts, and sexual violence: developing a model for postgendered family communication. Fam Relat 2017; 66(1): 61-74.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

50  Healy Cullen S, O’Rourke T, O’Higgins S, McIvor C, Achteresch E, Bharath A, et al. Using communication stories to explore how young people draw on sexual scripts when making sense of sexual consent. Sex Cult 2023; 27(4): 1556-77.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

51  Pascoe CJ, Hollander JA. ‘Good guys don’t rape’: gender domination, and mobilizing rape. Gen Soc 2016; 30(1): 67-79.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

52  Engstrom T, Waller M, Mullens AB, Durham J, Debattista J, Wenham K, Bell SFE, Ariana A, Gu Z, Daken K, Dingle K, Gilks CF, Williams OD, Dean JA. STI and HIV knowledge and testing: a comparison of domestic Australian-born, domestic overseas-born and international university students in Australia. Sex Health 2021; 18: 346-8.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |