Non-compliance and under-performance in Australian human-induced regeneration projects

Andrew Macintosh; Megan C. Evans; Don Butler; Pablo Larraondo; Chamith Edirisinghe; Kristen B. Hunter; Maldwyn J. Evans; Dean Ansell; Marie Waschka; David Lindenmayer

doi:10.1071/RJ24024

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Contents Vol 46(5)

Non-compliance and under-performance in Australian human-induced regeneration projects

Andrew Macintosh ^A ^* , Megan C. Evans

^B ^* , Don Butler ^A ^* , Pablo Larraondo ^C , Chamith Edirisinghe ^C , Kristen B. Hunter

^D , Maldwyn J. Evans ^A ^E , Dean Ansell ^A , Marie Waschka ^A and David Lindenmayer ^A ^E

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

^B University of New South Wales Canberra at ADFA, School of Business, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

^C Haizea Analytics, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

^D University of New South Wales - Kensington Campus, School of Mathematics & Statistics, Kensington, NSW, Australia.

^E Australian National University, Fenner School of Environment and Society, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

^* Correspondence to: andrew.macintosh@anu.edu.au, megan.evans@unsw.edu.au, donald.butler@anu.edu.au

The Rangeland Journal 46, RJ24024 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ24024

Submitted: 3 July 2024 Accepted: 24 September 2024 Published: 10 October 2024

© 2024 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Australian Rangeland Society. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

The ‘boom-and-bust’ nature of rangelands makes them ill-suited to nature-based solutions (NbS) involving carbon sequestration in vegetation and soils. The variability in these ecosystems makes it difficult to determine whether carbon stock changes are attributable to project activities, creating additionality risks. Low and variable rainfall also means carbon stock increases will often be impermanent, being susceptible to reversals in droughts, a risk magnified by climate change. The small potential for gains per unit area over vast regions makes it difficult to accurately measure carbon stock changes at low cost. This creates pressure to trade accuracy for simplicity in measurement approaches, increasing the risk of errors. Despite these risks, rangelands have been advanced as suitable for offset projects because of low opportunity cost and a perception they are extensively degraded. The most prominent example globally is human-induced regeneration (HIR) projects under the Australian carbon credit unit (ACCU) scheme, which are purporting to regenerate permanent even-aged native forests (≥20% canopy cover from trees ≥2 metres high) across millions of hectares of largely uncleared rangelands, predominantly by reducing grazing pressure. Previous research found limited forest regeneration in the credited areas of these projects, and that most of the observed changes in tree cover were attributable to factors other than the project activities. Here we extend this research by evaluating compliance of a sample of 116 HIR projects with regulatory requirements and their performance in increasing sequestration in regeneration. The results suggest most HIR projects are non-compliant with key regulatory requirements that are essential to project integrity, and have had minimal impact on woody vegetation cover in credited areas. The findings point to major administrative and governance failings in Australia’s carbon credit scheme, and a significant missed opportunity to restore biodiversity-rich woodlands and forests in previously cleared lands via legitimate carbon offset projects.

Keywords: carbon markets, climate change, environmental governance, forest carbon, generalised additive mixed models, nature-based solutions, rangeland management, revegetation.

References

Anadón JD, Sala OE, Turner BL, Bennett EM (2014) Effect of woody-plant encroachment on livestock production in North and South America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(35), 12948-12953.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Archer S, Predick K (2014) An ecosystem services perspective on brush management: research priorities for competing land-use objectives. Journal of Ecology 102, 1394-1407.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Armston JD, Denham RJ, Danaher TJ, Scarth PF, Moffiet TN (2009) Prediction and validation of foliage projective cover from Landsat-5 TM and Landsat-7 ETM+ imagery. Journal of Applied Remote Sensing 3, 033540.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Australian National Audit Office (2024) ‘Issuing, Compliance and Contracting of Australian Carbon Credit Units.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Badgley G, Freeman J, Hamman J, et al. (2022) Systematic over-crediting in California’s forest carbon offsets program. Global Change Biology 28, 1433-1445.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Baynes T, Grant T, Marcos-Martinez R, West J (2022) ‘Offsets for Life Cycle Australian Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Onshore Shale Gas in the Northern Territory.’ (CSIRO: Australia)

Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y (1995) Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology) 57, 289-300.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bond WJ, Stevens N, Midgley GF, Lehmann C (2019) The trouble with trees: afforestation plans for Africa. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 34, 963-965.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Booker K, Huntsinger L, Bartolome JW, Sayre NF, Stewart W (2013) What can ecological science tell us about opportunities for carbon sequestration on arid rangelands in the United States? Global Environmental Change 23, 240-251.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Booth CA, Barker PJ (1981) Shrub invasion on sandplain country west of Wanaaring, New South Wales. Journal of the Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales 37, 65-70.
| Google Scholar |

Bowen M, Chudleigh F, Sallur N, Sommerfield C (2022) Opportunities to build resilience of beef cattle properties in the mulga lands of south-western Queensland, Australia. The Rangeland Journal 44(2), 115-128.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Brack C (2023) ‘Gateway Regeneration Checks for Human Induced Regeneration projects.’ (Clean Energy Regulator: Canberra, ACT)

Breidenich C, Magraw D, Rowley A, Rubin JW (1998) The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations framework convention on climate change. American Journal of International Law 92, 315-331.
| Google Scholar |

Briske DD, Coppock DL (2023) Rangeland stewardship envisioned through a planetary lens. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 38, 109-112.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Briske D, Vetter S, Coetsee C, Turner M (2024) Rangeland afforestation is not a natural climate solution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 22, e2727.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Brown RF (1985) The growth and survival of young mulga (Acacia aneura f. Muell) trees under different levels of grazing. Australian Rangeland Journal 7(2), 143-148.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Burrows WH (1973) Studies in the dynamics and control of woody weeds in semi-arid Queensland. 1. Eremophila gilesii. Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences 30, 57-64.
| Google Scholar |

Butler D, Evans M, Macintosh A (2022) ‘Australian National University (ANU)-University of New South Wales (UNSW) ERF research team submission to the Chubb Review.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT)

Cames M, Harthan R, Füssler J, et al. (2016) ‘How additional is the Clean Development Mechanism? Analysis of the application of current tools and proposed alternatives.’ (INFRAS and Stockholm Environment Institute: Zürich)

Carmody E, Cosier P, Flannery T, et al. (2022) ‘Submission of the Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists to the Independent Review of Australian Carbon Credit Units.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT)

Chubb I, Bennett A, Gorring A, Hatfield-Dodds A (2022) ‘Independent Review of ACCUs.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT)

Clean Energy Regulator (2014) ‘Sequestration methodology: Human induced regeneration of a permanent even-aged forest.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20140211231154/http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/Carbon-Farming-Initiative/methodology-determinations/Pages/Sequestration-methodology-Human-induced-regeneration-of-a-permanent-even-aged-native-forest.aspx [accessed 11 June 2024]

Clean Energy Regulator (2019) ‘Guidelines on stratification, evidence and records. For projects under the Human-Induced Regeneration of a Permanent Even-Aged Native Forest and Native Forest from Managed Regrowth methods.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Clean Energy Regulator (2022) Emissions reduction fund: method claims not substantiated. Available at https://cer.gov.au/emissions-reduction-fund-method-claims-not-substantiated [accessed 26 June 2024]

Clean Energy Regulator (2023a) ‘ACCU Scheme – Human-induced Regeneration Method Graphs.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Clean Energy Regulator (2023b) Independent review provides confidence in the integrity of human-induced regeneration projects. Available at https://cer.gov.au/independent-review-provides-confidence-integrity-human-induced-regeneration-projects [accessed 14 May 2024]

Clean Energy Regulator (2024) ‘Emissions Reduction Fund Register.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://cer.gov.au/markets/reports-and-data/accu-project-and-contract-register?view=Projects [accessed 16 September 2024]

Clean Energy Regulator & Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023) ‘Joint CER/DCCEEW response to ANU papers on Human Induced Regeneration.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra) Available at https://cer.gov.au/joint-cerdcceew-response-anu-papers-human-induced-regeneration [accessed 2 June 2024].

Cockfield G, Shrestha U, Waters C (2019) Evaluating the potential financial contributions of carbon farming to grazing enterprises in Western NSW. The Rangeland Journal 41, 211-223.
| Google Scholar |

Commonwealth of Australia (2013) ‘Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) (Human Induced Regeneration of a Permanent Even-Aged Native Forest) Methodology Determination 2013. Federal Register of Legislative Instruments F2013L00162.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Commonwealth of Australia (2014) ‘Emissions Reduction Fund White Paper.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Commonwealth of Australia (2015a) ‘Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) (Human Induced Regeneration of a Permanent Even-Aged Native Forest) Methodology Determination 2013 – 1.1. Federal Register of Legislative Instruments F2015C00576.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Commonwealth of Australia (2015b) ‘Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Amendment Rule (No. 2) 2018. Federal Register of Legislative Instruments F2018L01642.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Commonwealth of Australia (2015c) ‘Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Rule 2015. Federal Register of Legislative Instruments F2023C00811.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Commonwealth of Australia (2016) ‘Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) (Human Induced Regeneration of a Permanent Even-Aged Native Forest) Methodology Determination 2013 – 1.1. Federal Register of Legislative Instruments F2016C00281.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Commonwealth of Australia (2018) ‘Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) (Human Induced Regeneration of a Permanent Even-Aged Native Forest) Methodology Determination 2013 – 1.1. Federal Register of Legislative Instruments F2018C00125.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) (2009) ‘An Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation and Carbon Biosequestration Opportunities from Rural Land Use.’ (CSIRO: Australia)

Crowley G, Murphy S (2023) Carbon-dioxide-driven increase in foliage projective cover is not the same as increased woody plant density: lessons from an Australian tropical savanna. The Rangeland Journal 45(2), 81-95.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cunningham GM, Walker PJ (1973) Growth and survival of mulga (Acacia aneura F. Muell, ex Benth.) in western New South Wales. Tropical Grasslands 7(1), 69-77.
| Google Scholar |

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2021) ‘Australian Collaborative Rangeland Information System (ACRIS): Australian Rangeland Boundaries.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023a) ‘Major Vegetation Groups (Version 6.0).’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/native-vegetation/national-vegetation-information-system/data-products#mvg60 [accessed 11 June 2024]

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023b) ‘National Forest and Sparse Woody Vegetation Data (Version 7.0 - 2022 Release).’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Department of the Environment (2014) ‘CFI Vegetation Methodology: Human-induced Regeneration.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Eldridge DJ, Sala O (2023) Australia’s carbon plan disregards evidence. Science 382, 894.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Eldridge DJ, Bowker MA, Maestre FT, Roger E, Reynolds JF, Whitford WG (2011) Impacts of shrub encroachment on ecosystem structure and functioning: towards a global synthesis. Ecology Letters 14, 709-722.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Emissions Reduction Assurance Committee (2019) ‘Review of the Human-Induced Regeneration and Native Forest from Managed Regrowth methods.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Emissions Reduction Assurance Committee (2021) ‘Information Paper: Committee considerations for interpreting the Emissions Reduction Fund’s offsets integrity standards.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Emissions Reduction Assurance Committee (2022) ‘Emissions Reduction Assurance Committee findings on the Emissions Reduction Fund’s Human Induced Regeneration method.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Evans MC (2016) Deforestation in Australia: drivers, trends and policy responses. Pacific Conservation Biology 22, 130-150.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Evans MC, Carwardine J, Fensham RJ, Butler DW, Wilson KA, Possingham HP, Martin TG (2015) Carbon farming via assisted natural regeneration as a cost-effective mechanism for restoring biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. Environmental Science & Policy 50, 114-129.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Farber D (1999) Taking slippage seriously: non-compliance and creative compliance in environmental law. Harvard Environmental Law Review 23, 297-325.
| Google Scholar |

Fensham R (2008) Leichhardt’s maps: 100 years of change in vegetation structure in inland Queensland. Journal of Biogeography 35, 141-156.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fensham R, Powell O, Horne J (2011) Rail survey plans to remote sensing: vegetation change in the Mulga Lands of eastern Australia and its implications for land-use. Rangeland Journal 33, 229-238.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fisher A, Scarth P, Armston J, Danaher T (2018) Relating foliage and crown projective cover in Australian tree stands. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 259, 39-47.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fitch P, Battaglia M, Lenton A, Feron P, Gao L, Mei Y, Hortle A, Macdonald L, Pearce M, Occhipinti S, Roxburgh S, Steven A (2022) ‘Australia’s Sequestration Potential.’ (CSIRO: Australia)

Fleischman F, Basant S, Chhatre A, Coleman EA, Fischer HW, Gupta D, Güneralp B, Kashwan P, Khatri D, Muscarella R, Powers JS, Ramprasad V, Rana P, Solorzano CR, Veldman JW (2020) Pitfalls of tree planting show why we need people-centered natural climate solutions. BioScience 70, 947-950.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gageler, S (2015) The Master of Words: Who Chooses Statutory Meaning? In ‘Public Law in the Age of Statutes: Essays in Honour of Dennis Pearce’. (Eds A Connelly, D Steward) pp. 12–26. (Federation Press: Sydney, NSW)

Garnaut R (2008) ‘The Garnaut Climate Change Review.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge)

Garnaut R (2011) ‘The Garnaut Review 2011: Australia in the Global Response to Climate Change.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge)

Gelman A (2008) Scaling regression inputs by dividing by two standard deviations. Statistics in Medicine 27(15), 2865-2873.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Gifford R, McIvor J (2009) Rehabilitate overgrazed rangelands, restoring soil and vegetation carbon-balance. In ‘CSIRO, An Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation and Carbon Biosequestration Opportunities from Rural Land Use’. Chapter 5. pp 60–76. (CSIRO Australia)

Harrington G (1979a) Estimation of above-ground biomass of trees and shrubs in a Eucalyptus populnea F. Muell. Woodland by regression of mass on trunk diameter and plant height. Australian Journal of Botany 27, 135-143.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Harrington G (1979b) The effects of feral goats and sheep on the shrub populations in a semi-arid woodland. The Australian Rangeland Journal 1(4), 334-345.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hodgkinson KC, Harrington G (1985) The case for prescribed burning to control shrubs in eastern semi-arid woodlands. The Australian Rangeland Journal 7(2), 64-74.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kumar D, Pfeiffer M, Gaillard C, Langan L, Martens C, Scheiter S (2020) Misinterpretation of Asian savannas as degraded forest can mislead management and conservation policy under climate change. Biological Conservation 241, 108293.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Larmour J, Davies M, Paul K, England J, Roxburgh S (2018) Relating canopy cover and average height to the biomass of the stand. Report for the Department of the Environment and Energy. (CSIRO: Canberra, ACT)

Lett M, Knapp A (2005) Woody plant encroachment and removal in Mesic grassland: production and composition responses of herbaceous vegetation. The American Midland Naturalist 153(2), 217-231.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Liao Z, Van Dijk A, He B, Larraondo P, Scarth P (2020) Woody vegetation cover, height and biomass at 25-m resolution across Australia derived from multiple site, airborne and satellite observations. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 93, 102209.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Long S, McDonald A (2022) Insider blows whistle on Australia’s greenhouse gas reduction schemes. Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), 24 March 2022. Available at https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-24/insider-blows-whistle-on-greenhouse-gas-reduction-schemes/100933186 [accessed 11 June 2024]

Macintosh A, Butler D, Larraondo P, Waschka M, Evans M, Ansell D (2023) ‘The under-performance of human-induced regeneration (HIR) projects: Analysis of misinformation disseminated by the Clean Energy Regulator.’ (The Australian National University: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://law.anu.edu.au/files/2024-01/Response%20to%20CER%20HIR%20graphs%20190623.pdf [accessed 11 June 2024]

Macintosh A, Butler D, Larraondo P, Evans MC, Ansell D, Waschka M, Fensham R, Eldridge D, Lindenmayer D, Gibbons P, Summerfield P (2024a) Australian human-induced native forest regeneration carbon offset projects have limited impact on changes in woody vegetation cover and carbon removals. Communications Earth & Environment 5, 149.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Macintosh A, Evans MC, Larraondo P, Butler D, Eldridge D, Ansell D (2024b) Analysis of Brack report on Human Induced Regeneration Gateway Regeneration Checks. The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT. Available at https://law.anu.edu.au/analysis-brack-report-human-induced-regeneration-gateway-regeneration-checks [accessed 26 June 2024]

McKeon G, Hall W, Henry B, Stone G, Watson I (2004) ‘Pasture degradation and recovery in Australia’s rangelands: learning from history.’ (Queensland Government, Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy: Brisbane, Qld)

Moore CWE (1973) Some observations on the ecology and control of woody weeds on mulga lands in north western New South Wales. Tropical Grasslands 7, 79-88.
| Google Scholar |

Neldner VJ, Wilson BA, Dillewaard HA, Ryan TS, Butler DW, McDonald WJF, Richter D, Addicott EP, Appelman CN (2023) ‘Methodology for survey and mapping of regional ecosystems and vegetation communities in Queensland. Version 7.0. Updated December 2023.’ (Queensland Herbarium, Queensland Department of Environment, Science and Innovation: Brisbane, Qld)

NSW Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023) ‘NSW State Vegetation Type Map (C2.0M2.0, December 2023).’ (NSW Government: Sydney) Available at https://datasets.seed.nsw.gov.au/dataset/nsw-state-vegetation-type-map [11 June 2024]

Parliament of Australia (2013) ‘Explanatory Statement: Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 - Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) (Human Induced Regeneration of a Permanent Even-Aged Native Forest) Methodology Determination 2013.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT)

Parr CL, te Beest M, Stevens N (2024) Conflation of reforestation with restoration is widespread. Science 383, 698-701.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Paul K, Roxburgh S (2020) Predicting carbon sequestration of woody biomass following land restoration. Forest Ecology and Management 460, 117838.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Paul K, Roxburgh S, England J, et al. (2015) Improved models for estimating temporal changes in carbon sequestration in above-ground biomass of mixed-species environmental plantings. Forest Ecology and Management 338, 208-218.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

R Core Team (2024) ‘R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Version 4.4.1.’ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria) Available at https://www.R-project.org/

Richards G, Brack C (2004) A continental biomass stock and stock change estimation approach for Australia. Australian Forestry 67, 284-288.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Richards G, Evans D (2004) Development of a carbon accounting model (FullCAM Vers. 1.0) for the Australian continent. Australian Forestry 67, 277-283.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sankaran M, Augustine D, Ratnam J (2013) Native ungulates of diverse body sizes collectively regulate long-term woody plant demography and structure of a semi-arid savanna. Journal of Ecology 101, 1389-1399.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Schneider L, Kollmuss A (2015) Perverse effects of carbon markets on HFC-23 and SF6 abatement projects in Russia. Nature Climate Change 5, 1061-1064.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Schneider L, La Hoz Theuer S (2019) Environmental integrity of international carbon market mechanisms under the Paris Agreement. Climate Policy 19, 386-400.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Silcock J, Piddock T, Fensham R (2013) Illuminating the dawn of pastoralism: evaluating the record of European explorers to inform landscape change. Biological Conservation 159, 321-331.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Stapp J, Nolte C, Potts M, et al. (2023) Little evidence of management change in California’s forest offset program. Communications Earth & Environment 4, 331.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Stubbs M, Hoover K, Ramseur J (2021) ‘Agriculture and Forestry Offsets in Carbon Markets: Background and Selected Issues.’ (Congressional Research Service: Washington, DC, USA)

Veldman JW, Overbeck GE, Negreiros D, Mahy G, Le Stradic S, Fernandes GW, Durigan G, Buisson E, Putz FE, Bond WJ (2015) Where tree planting and forest expansion are bad for biodiversity and ecosystem services. BioScience 65, 1011-1018.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Vetter S (2020) With Power Comes Responsibility – a rangelands perspective on forest landscape restoration. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 4, 549483.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Victor D (2009) The Politics and Economics of International Carbon Offsets. In ‘Proceedings of the National Research Council, Modelling the Economics of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation: Summary of a Workshop’. pp. 132–142. (The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA)

Walker BH, Janssen MA (2002) Rangelands, pastoralists and governments: interlinked systems of people and nature. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 357, 719-725.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

West T, Bomfim B, Haya B (2024) Methodological issues with deforestation baselines compromise the integrity of carbon offsets from REDD+. Global Environmental Change 87, 102863.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

West T, Börner J, Sills EO, Kontoleon A (2020) Overstated carbon emission reductions from voluntary REDD+ projects in the Brazilian Amazon. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(39), 24188-24194.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

West T, Wunder S, Sills EO, et al. (2023) Action needed to make carbon offsets from forest conservation work for climate change mitigation. Science 381(6660), 873-877.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Westoby M (1984) The self-thinning rule. In ‘Advances in ecological research’. (Eds A MacFadyen, ED Ford) pp. 167–225. (Academic Press) 10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60171-3

Witt GB (2013) Vegetation changes through the eyes of the locals: the ‘artificial wilderness’ in the mulga country of south-west Queensland. The Rangeland Journal 35, 299-314.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Witt GB, Harrington R, Page M (2009) Is ‘vegetation thickening’ occurring in Queensland’s mulga lands – a 50-year aerial photographic analysis. Australian Journal of Botany 57, 572-582.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wood SN (2011) Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology 73(1), 3-36.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wood SN (2017) ‘Generalized additive models: an introduction with R.’ 2nd edn. (Chapman and Hall/CRC) 10.1201/9781315370279