Designing better nestboxes: double-walled and pale proves coolest under the sun
Murray V. Ellis A and Susan Rhind
B *
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Science Division, NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, PO Box 1967, Hurstville BC, NSW 1481, Australia.
B University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2500, Australia.
Pacific Conservation Biology 28(5) 444-454 https://doi.org/10.1071/PC21043
Submitted: 8 July 2021 Accepted: 3 August 2021 Published: 12 October 2021
© 2022 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing
Abstract
Context: Fauna nestboxes are used for conservation, research and mitigation against tree hollow/cavity loss. Scant attention has been given to the microclimate inside boxes until recently, with concern that nestboxes may be ineffective or a thermal trap because of high internal temperatures during summer.
Aim: Our study used construction design principles to guide modifications to nestboxes to reduce maximum temperatures inside boxes.
Methods: Five trials were undertaken, and modifications included addition of thermal mass, creation of a double wall system and painting the box and/or outer wall white. Nestboxes were placed in full sun.
Key results: The internal temperature difference from ambient between the worst (unpainted box) and the best box design was around 7°C at 30°C, and 9.5°C at 40°C. Painting boxes white had a marked impact on internal temperatures, but the single modification giving most protection from heat gain was construction of a ventilated double wall. This created a shaded air space around the internal box. Painting the outer layer white further improved insulation, and painting both the box and outer layer gave the best result.
Conclusion: Double-walled, pale nestboxes can provide significant protection from solar heat. Implications Adding an air space to insulate a nestbox has considerable advantages over alternatives − it contributes little weight (compare using denser wood/materials); avoids environmental issues associated with insulators such as polystyrene or foil batts; is inexpensive; is easy to retrofit a second layer around existing boxes and it should improve nestbox longevity as the outer layer protects the inner box from weathering.
Keywords: air space insulation, artificial hollows, artificial tree cavities, colour, microclimate, thermal mass, thermal tolerance, twin-wall
References
Beyer, GL, and Goldingay, RL (2006). The value of nest boxes in the research and management of Australian hollow-using arboreal marsupials. Wildlife Research 33, 161–174.| The value of nest boxes in the research and management of Australian hollow-using arboreal marsupials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bideguren, GM, L’opez-Baucells, A, Puig-Montserrat, X, Mas, M, Porres, X, and Flaquer, C (2019). Bat boxes and climate change: testing the risk of over-heating in the Mediterranean region. Biodiversity and Conservation 28, 21–35.
| Bat boxes and climate change: testing the risk of over-heating in the Mediterranean region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Briscoe, NJ, Handasyde, KA, Griffiths, SR, Porter, WP, Krockenberger, A, and Kearney, MR (2014). Tree-hugging koalas demonstrate a novel thermoregulatory mechanism for arboreal mammals. Biology Letters 10, 20140235.
| Tree-hugging koalas demonstrate a novel thermoregulatory mechanism for arboreal mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24899683PubMed |
Calder TG (1979) Some physical characteristics of natural and artificial hollows for arboreal species. M. Env. Sci., Ph.D. thesis, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia.
Carey, C (1980). The ecology of avian incubation. BioScience 30, 819–824.
| The ecology of avian incubation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Charter, M, Meyrom, K, Leshem, Y, Aviel, S, Izhaki, I, and Motro, Y (2010). Does nest box location and orientation affect occupation rate and breeding success of barn owls Tyto alba in a semi-arid environment?. Acta Ornithologica 45, 115–119.
| Does nest box location and orientation affect occupation rate and breeding success of barn owls Tyto alba in a semi-arid environment?.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cockle, KL, Martin, K, and Wesołowski, T (2011). Woodpeckers, decay, and the future of cavity‐nesting vertebrate communities worldwide. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9, 377–382.
| Woodpeckers, decay, and the future of cavity‐nesting vertebrate communities worldwide.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Croft DB (2003) Behaviour of carnivorous marsupials. In ‘Predators with pouches: the biology of carnivorous marsupials’. (Eds M Jones, M Archer, C Dickman) pp. 332–346. (CSIRO Publishing: Clayton, Vic., Australia)
Ellis, MV (2016). Impacts of design on the microclimate inside nest boxes exposed to direct sunshine. Australian Zoologist 38, 95–101.
| Impacts of design on the microclimate inside nest boxes exposed to direct sunshine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Geiser, F, and Körtner, G (2010). Hibernation and daily torpor in Australian mammals. Australian Zoologist 35, 204–215.
| Hibernation and daily torpor in Australian mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gibbons P, Lindenmayer D (2002) ‘Tree hollows and wildlife conservation in Australia’. (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, Vic., Australia)
Goldingay, RL (2015). Temperature variation in nest boxes in eastern Australia. Australian Mammalogy 37, 225–233.
| Temperature variation in nest boxes in eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldingay, RL (2020). Does temperature variation influence nest box use by the eastern pygmy-possum?. Australian Mammalogy 42, 77–84.
| Does temperature variation influence nest box use by the eastern pygmy-possum?.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldingay, RL, Rohweder, D, and Taylor, BD (2020). Nest box contentions: are nest boxes used by the species they target?. Ecological Management & Restoration. 21, 115–122.
| Nest box contentions: are nest boxes used by the species they target?.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldingay, RL, Rueegger, NN, Grimson, MJ, and Taylor, BD (2015). Specific nest box designs can improve habitat restoration for cavity-dependent arboreal mammals. Restoration Ecology 23, 482–490.
| Specific nest box designs can improve habitat restoration for cavity-dependent arboreal mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldingay RL, Sharpe DJ (2004) Spotlights versus nestboxes for detecting feathertail gliders in north-east New South Wales. In ‘The biology of Australian possums and gliders’. (Eds RL Goldingay, SM Jackson) pp. 298–305. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney, NSW, Australia)
Goldingay, RL, and Stevens, JR (2009). Use of artificial tree hollows by Australian birds and bats. Wildlife Research 36, 81–97.
| Use of artificial tree hollows by Australian birds and bats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldingay, RL, and Thomas, KJ (2021). Tolerance to high temperature by arboreal mammals using nest boxes in southern Australia. Journal of Thermal Biology 98, 102899.
| Tolerance to high temperature by arboreal mammals using nest boxes in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 34016330PubMed |
Goldingay, RL, Thomas, KJ, and Shanty, D (2018). Outcomes of decades long installation of nest boxes for arboreal mammals in southern Australia. Ecological Management & Restoration 19, 204–211.
| Outcomes of decades long installation of nest boxes for arboreal mammals in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Golding BG (1979) The use of artificial hollows by mammals and birds in the Wombat Forest, Daylesford, Victoria. M. Env. Sci. Thesis, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia.
Green, K, and Crowley, H (1989). Energetics and behavior of active subnivean insectivores Antechinus-swainsonii and Antechinus-stuartii (Marsupialia, Dasyuridae) in the Snowy Mountains. Wildlife Research 16, 509–516.
| Energetics and behavior of active subnivean insectivores Antechinus-swainsonii and Antechinus-stuartii (Marsupialia, Dasyuridae) in the Snowy Mountains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Griffiths, SR, Lentini, PE, Semmens, K, Watson, SJ, Lumsden, LF, and Robert, KA (2018). Chainsaw-carved cavities better mimic the thermal properties of natural tree hollows than nest boxes and log hollows. Forests 9, 235.
| Chainsaw-carved cavities better mimic the thermal properties of natural tree hollows than nest boxes and log hollows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Griffiths, SR, Rowland, JA, Briscoe, NJ, Lentini, PE, Handasyde, KA, Lumsden, LF, and Robert, KA (2017). Surface reflectance drives nest box temperature profiles and thermal suitability for target wildlife. PLoS ONE 12, e0176951.
| Surface reflectance drives nest box temperature profiles and thermal suitability for target wildlife.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28472147PubMed |
Harley DKP (2004) ‘Patterns of nest box use by Leadbeater’s possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri): applications to research and conservation’. (Eds RL Goldingay, SM Jackson) pp. 318–329. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney, NSW, Australia)
Harley, DKP (2006). A role for nest boxes in the conservation of Leadbeater’s possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri. Wildlife Research 33, 385–395.
| A role for nest boxes in the conservation of Leadbeater’s possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huggins, RA (1941). Egg temperatures of wild birds under natural conditions. Ecology 22, 148–15.
| Egg temperatures of wild birds under natural conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
IPCC (2013) Climate Change (2013): the physical science basis. In ‘Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’. (Eds TF Stocker, D Qin, GK Plattner, M Tignor, SK Allen, J Boschung, A Nauels, Y Xia, V Bex, PM Midgley) (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA) https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324
Isaac, JL, Parsons, M, and Goodman, BA (2008). How hot do nest boxes get in the tropics? A study of nest boxes for the endangered mahogany glider. Wildlife Research 35, 441–445.
| How hot do nest boxes get in the tropics? A study of nest boxes for the endangered mahogany glider.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Larson, ER, Eastwood, JR, Buchanan, KL, Bennett, ATD, and Berg, ML (2015). How does nest box temperature affect nestling growth rate and breeding success in a parrot?. Emu – Austral Ornithology 115, 247–255.
| How does nest box temperature affect nestling growth rate and breeding success in a parrot?.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Larson, ER, Eastwood, JR, Buchanan, KL, Bennett, ATD, and Berg, ML (2018). Nest box design for a changing climate: the value of improved insulation. Ecological Management & Restoration 19, 39–48.
| Nest box design for a changing climate: the value of improved insulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lindenmayer, DB, MacGregor, C, and Gibbons, P (2002). Comment – Economics of a nest-box program for the conservation of an endangered species: a re-appraisal. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32, 2244–2247.
| Comment – Economics of a nest-box program for the conservation of an endangered species: a re-appraisal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lindenmayer, DB, Welsh, A, Donnelly, C, Crane, M, Michael, D, Macgregor, C, McBurney, L, Montague-Drake, R, and Gibbons, P (2009). Are nest boxes a viable alternative source of cavities for hollow-dependent animals? Long-term monitoring of nest box occupancy, pest use and attrition. Biological Conservation 142, 33–42.
| Are nest boxes a viable alternative source of cavities for hollow-dependent animals? Long-term monitoring of nest box occupancy, pest use and attrition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Maziarz, M, Broughton, RK, and Wesołowski, T (2017). Microclimate in tree cavities and nest-boxes: implications for hole-nesting birds. Forest Ecology and Management 389, 306–313.
| Microclimate in tree cavities and nest-boxes: implications for hole-nesting birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McComb, WC, and Noble, RE (1981). Microclimates of nest boxes and natural cavities in bottomland hardwoods. The Journal of Wildlife Management 45, 284–289.
| Microclimates of nest boxes and natural cavities in bottomland hardwoods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Meaney, KM, Peacock, DE, Taggart, D, and Smith, J (2021). Rapid colonisation, breeding and successful recruitment of eastern barn owls (Tyto alba delicatula) using a customised wooden nest box in remnant mallee cropping areas of southern Yorke Peninsula, South Australia. Wildlife Research 48, 334–344.
| Rapid colonisation, breeding and successful recruitment of eastern barn owls (Tyto alba delicatula) using a customised wooden nest box in remnant mallee cropping areas of southern Yorke Peninsula, South Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Menkhorst, PW (1984). Use of nest boxes by forest vertebrates in Gippsland: acceptance, preference and demand. Australian Wildlife Research 11, 255–264.
| Use of nest boxes by forest vertebrates in Gippsland: acceptance, preference and demand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Connell, C, and Keppel, G (2016). Deep tree hollows: important refuges from extreme temperatures. Wildlife Biology 22, 305–310.
| Deep tree hollows: important refuges from extreme temperatures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
R Core Team (2017) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.R-project.org
Rhind, SG (2003). Communal nesting in the solitary marsupial, Phascogale tapoatafa. Journal of Zoology 261, 345–351.
| Communal nesting in the solitary marsupial, Phascogale tapoatafa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robinson, KW, and Morrison, PR (1957). The reaction to hot atmospheres of various species of Australian marsupial and placental animals. Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology 49, 455–478.
| The reaction to hot atmospheres of various species of Australian marsupial and placental animals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 13481078PubMed |
Root-Bernstein, M, and Ladle, RJ (2010). Conservation by design. Conservation Biology 24, 1205–1211.
| Conservation by design.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20408866PubMed |
Rowland, JA, Briscoe, NJ, and Handasyde, KA (2017). Comparing the thermal suitability of nest-boxes and tree-hollows for the conservation-management of arboreal marsupials. Biological Conservation 209, 341–348.
| Comparing the thermal suitability of nest-boxes and tree-hollows for the conservation-management of arboreal marsupials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rueegger, NN, Goldingay, RL, and Brookes, LO (2012). Does nest box design influence use by the eastern pygmy-possum?. Australian Journal of Zoology 60, 372–380.
| Does nest box design influence use by the eastern pygmy-possum?.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sadineni, SB, Madala, S, and Boehm, RF (2011). Passive building energy savings: a review of building envelope components. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15, 3617–3631.
| Passive building energy savings: a review of building envelope components.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stojanovic, D, Cook, HCL, Sato, C, Alves, F, Harris, G, McKernan, A, Rayner, L, Webb, MH, Sutherland, WJ, and Heinsohn, R (2019). Pre-emptive action as a measure for conserving nomadic species. The Journal of Wildlife Management 83, 64–71.
| Pre-emptive action as a measure for conserving nomadic species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Webb, DR (1987). Thermal tolerance of avian embryos: a review. The Condor 89, 874–898.
| Thermal tolerance of avian embryos: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yates, CJ, and Hobbs, RJ (1997). Temperate eucalypt woodlands: a review of their status, processes threatening their persistence and techniques for restoration. Australian Journal of Botany 45, 949–973.
| Temperate eucalypt woodlands: a review of their status, processes threatening their persistence and techniques for restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
