Register      Login
Marine and Freshwater Research Marine and Freshwater Research Society
Advances in the aquatic sciences
RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Spatial variation and drivers of vegetation structure and composition in coastal freshwater wetlands of subtropical Australia

Rebekah Grieger https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7663-1667 A B D , Samantha J. Capon A B , Wade L. Hadwen A B C and Brendan Mackey A C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Griffith University, School of Environment and Science, Nathan, Qld 4111, Australia.

B Griffith University, Australian Rivers Institute, Nathan, Qld 4111, Australia.

C Griffith University, Climate Action Beacon, Southport, Qld 4222, Australia.

D Corresponding author. Email: rebekah.grieger@griffithuni.edu.au

Marine and Freshwater Research 72(12) 1746-1759 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF21023
Submitted: 21 January 2021  Accepted: 11 August 2021   Published: 31 August 2021

Journal Compilation © CSIRO 2021 Open Access CC BY-NC

Abstract

Coastal freshwater wetlands (CFWs) are among the most understudied wetlands globally and are highly vulnerable to projected climate changes. To address CFW knowledge gaps in south-east Queensland, Australia, we surveyed the floristic composition and structure of wooded CFWs and explored variation in vegetation patterns in relation to selected environmental drivers. Understorey and shrub assemblages were surveyed using a cover-class scale and stem counts for tree species abundance. Vegetation structure attributes (stem density, basal area) were calculated from survey data. Redundancy analysis was used to investigate drivers of vegetation structure and the species composition of each stratum. Vegetation structure patterns were associated with gradients of rainfall, soil moisture, salinity and pH. Understorey species composition was associated with wallum wetland species, native perennial grass and herb species, and vegetation patterns of the canopy. Common CFW species, namely Melaleuca quinquenervia and Eucalyptus tereticornis, dominated tree assemblage variation. Overall, CFW vegetation exhibited strong associations with gradients of salinity, rainfall, groundwater dependence and disturbance. Alterations to key drivers of vegetation pattern with future climate changes are likely to markedly influence the composition, structure and function of CFW vegetation communities. Action is therefore required to maintain CFW vegetation communities and ecological function in these diverse and unique wetland systems.

Keywords: climate change, floodplain wetlands, salinity, sea level rise, tidal freshwater wetlands.


References

Adame, M. F., Reef, R., Wong, V. N. L., Balcombe, S. R., Turschwell, M. P., Kavehei, E., Rodríguez, D. C., Kelleway, J. J., Masque, P., and Ronan, M. (2020). Carbon and nitrogen sequestration of melaleuca floodplain wetlands in tropical Australia. Ecosystems 23, 454–466.
Carbon and nitrogen sequestration of melaleuca floodplain wetlands in tropical Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Akasaka, M., Takamura, N., Mitsuhashi, H., and Kadono, Y. (2010). Effects of land use on aquatic macrophyte diversity and water quality of ponds. Freshwater Biology 55, 909–922.
Effects of land use on aquatic macrophyte diversity and water quality of ponds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

An, S., and Verhoeven, J. T. A. (2019). Wetland functions and ecosystem services: Implications for wetland restoration and wise use. In ‘Wetlands: Ecosystem Services, Restoration and Wise Use’. (Eds S. An and J. T. A. Verhoeven.) pp. 1–10. (Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland.)

Anderson, C. J., Lockaby, B. G., and Click, N. (2013). Changes in wetland forest structure, basal growth, and composition across a tidal gradient. American Midland Naturalist 170, 1–13.
Changes in wetland forest structure, basal growth, and composition across a tidal gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Baldwin, A. H. (2007). Vegetation and seed banks studies of salt-pulsed swamps of the Nanticoke River, Chesapeake Bay. In ‘Ecology of Tidal Freshwater Forested Wetlands of the Southeastern United States’. (Eds W. H. Conner, T. W. Doyle, and K. W. Krauss.) pp. 139–160. (Springer: Dordrecht, Netherlands.)

Baldwin, A. H., Hammerschlag, R. S., and Cahoon, D. R. (2019). Evaluating restored tidal freshwater wetlands. In ‘Coastal Wetlands – An Integrated Ecosystem Approach’, 2nd edn. (Eds G. M. E. Perillo, E. Wolanski, D. R. Cahoon, and C. S. Hopkinson.) pp. 889–915. (Elsevier: Amsterdam, Netherlands.)

Batianoff, G. N., and Butler, D. W. (2002). Assessment of invasive naturalised plants in south-east Queensland. Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 27–34.

Bell, D., Menges, C. H., and Bartolo, R. E. (2001). Assessing the extent of saltwater intrusion in a tropical coastal environment using radar and optical remote sensing. Geocarto International 16, 45–52.
Assessing the extent of saltwater intrusion in a tropical coastal environment using radar and optical remote sensing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Boon, P. (2012). Coastal wetlands of temperate eastern Australia: will Cinderella ever go to the ball? Marine and Freshwater Research 63, 845–855.
Coastal wetlands of temperate eastern Australia: will Cinderella ever go to the ball?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Boon, P. I., Allen, T., Carr, G., Frood, D., Harty, C., Mcmahon, A., Mathews, S., Rosengren, N., Sinclair, S., White, M., and Yugovic, J. (2015). Coastal wetlands of Victoria, south-eastern Australia: providing the inventory and condition information needed for their effective management and conservation. Aquatic Conservation 25, 454–479.
Coastal wetlands of Victoria, south-eastern Australia: providing the inventory and condition information needed for their effective management and conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Borcard, D., Gillet, F., and Legendre, P. (2018). ‘Numerical Ecology with R’, 2nd edn. (Springer: Cham, Switzerland.)

Borchert, S. M., Osland, M. J., Enwright, N. M., and Griffith, K. T. (2018). Coastal wetland adaptation to sea level rise: quantifying potential for landward migration and coastal squeeze. Journal of Applied Ecology 55, 2876–2887.
Coastal wetland adaptation to sea level rise: quantifying potential for landward migration and coastal squeeze.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bowman, D. M. J. S., Prior, L. D., and De Little, S. C. (2010). Retreating Melaleuca swamp forests in Kakadu National Park: evidence of synergistic effects of climate change and past feral buffalo impacts. Austral Ecology 35, 898–905.
Retreating Melaleuca swamp forests in Kakadu National Park: evidence of synergistic effects of climate change and past feral buffalo impacts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Braun-Blanquet, J. (1932). ‘Plant Sociology.’ (McGraw-Hill: New York, USA.)

Brown, G. K., and Bostock, P. D. (2019). Census of the Queensland flora 2019. (Queensland Department of Environment and Science: Brisbane, Qld, Australia.) Available at https://www.data.qld.gov.au/dataset/census-of-the-queensland-flora-2019

Bureau of Meteorology (2019). Greater Brisbane in 2019: a very warm and dry year. Available at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/qld/brisbane.shtml [Verified 10 February 2020].

Clark, R. L., and Guppy, J. C. (1988). A transition from mangrove forest to freshwater wetland in the monsoon tropics of Australia. Journal of Biogeography 15, 665–684.
A transition from mangrove forest to freshwater wetland in the monsoon tropics of Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Costall, A. R., Harris, B. D., Teo, B., Schaa, R., Wagner, F. M., and Pigois, J. P. (2020a). Groundwater throughflow and seawater intrusion in high quality coastal aquifers. Scientific Reports 10, 9866.
Groundwater throughflow and seawater intrusion in high quality coastal aquifers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 32555499PubMed |

Costall, A. R., Harris, B. D., Teo, B., Schaa, R., Wagner, F. M., and Pigois, J. P. (2020b). Publisher Correction: Groundwater throughflow and seawater intrusion in high quality coastal aquifers. Scientific Reports 10, 19088.
Publisher Correction: Groundwater throughflow and seawater intrusion in high quality coastal aquifers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 33127942PubMed |

Crisp, M. D., and Cummings, D. J. (1977). How to use field note books. Available at https://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/herbarium/collecting/field-note-book.html [Verified 10 March 2020].

Department of Environment and Science (2014). Land use mapping – 1999 to 2013 – South East Queensland NRM. (Queensland Department of Environment and Science.)

Desantis, L. R. G., Bhotika, S., Williams, K., and Putz, F. E. (2007). Sea-level rise and drought interactions accelerate forest decline on the Gulf Coast of Florida, USA. Global Change Biology 13, 2349–2360.
Sea-level rise and drought interactions accelerate forest decline on the Gulf Coast of Florida, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dowdy, A., Abbs, D., Bhend, J. F. C., Church, J., Ekström, M., Kirono, D., Lenton, A., Lucas, C., McInnes, K., Moise, A., Monselesan, D., Mpelasoka, F., Webb, L., and Whetton, P. (2015). Climate change in Australia, projections for Australia’s natural resource management regions: cluster reports. CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, Australia.

Doyle, T. W., O’Neil, C. P., Melder, M. P., From, A. S., and Palta, M. M. (2007). Tidal freshwater swamps of the southeastern United States: effects of land use, hurricanes, sea-level rise, and climate change. In ‘Ecology of Tidal Freshwater Forested Wetlands of the Southeastern United States’. pp. 1–28. (Springer.)
| Crossref |

Ensign, S. H., Piehler, M. F., and Doyle, M. W. (2008). Riparian zone denitrification affects nitrogen flux through a tidal freshwater river. Biogeochemistry 91, 133–150.
Riparian zone denitrification affects nitrogen flux through a tidal freshwater river.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Environmental Protection Agency (2005). ‘Wetland Mapping and Classification Methodology – Overall Framework – A Method to Provide Baseline Mapping and Classification for Wetlands in Queensland. Version 1.2.’ (Queensland Government: Brisbane, Qld, Australia.)

Enwright, N. M., Griffith, K. T., and Osland, M. J. (2016). Barriers to and opportunities for landward migration of coastal wetlands with sea-level rise. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14, 307–316.
Barriers to and opportunities for landward migration of coastal wetlands with sea-level rise.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fierro, P., Bertrán, C., Tapia, J., Hauenstein, E., Peña-Cortés, F., Vergara, C., Cerna, C., and Vargas-Chacoff, L. (2017). Effects of local land-use on riparian vegetation, water quality, and the functional organization of macroinvertebrate assemblages. The Science of the Total Environment 609, 724–734.
Effects of local land-use on riparian vegetation, water quality, and the functional organization of macroinvertebrate assemblages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28763669PubMed |

Finlayson, C. M., Bailey, B. J., and Cowie, I. D. (1989). Macrophytic vegetation of the Magela flood plain, Alligator Rivers Region, Northern Territory. Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Research Report 5. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra, ACT, Australia.) Available at https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/3ce1901c-7b9b-47ae-a024-8f07c08d0a04/files/rr5.pdf

Franklin, D. C., Brocklehurst, P. S., Lynch, D., and Bowman, D. (2007). Niche differentiation and regeneration in the seasonally flooded Melaleuca forests of northern Australia. Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, 457–467.
Niche differentiation and regeneration in the seasonally flooded Melaleuca forests of northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Greenway, M. (1998). Melaleuca wetlands – wastelands or wonderlands: their benefits, threats and management. In ‘Wetlands in a Dry Land: Understanding for Management’. (Ed. W. D. Williams.) pp. 163–170. (Environment Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)

Grice, T., and Nicholas, M. (2011). Using fire to restore Australian wetlands from invasive grasses. RIRDC Publication number 11/028, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

Grieger, R., Capon, S., and Hadwen, W. (2019). Resilience of coastal freshwater wetland vegetation of subtropical Australia to rising sea levels and altered hydrology. Regional Environmental Change 19, 279–292.
Resilience of coastal freshwater wetland vegetation of subtropical Australia to rising sea levels and altered hydrology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Grieger, R., Capon, S. J., Hadwen, W. L., and Mackey, B. (2020). Between a bog and a hard place: a global review of climate change effects on coastal freshwater wetlands. Climatic Change 163, 161–179.
Between a bog and a hard place: a global review of climate change effects on coastal freshwater wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Griffith, S. J., Bale, C., Adam, P., and Wilson, R. (2003). Wallum and related vegetation on the NSW North Coast: description and phytosociological analysis. Cunninghamia 2, 202–252.

Griffith, S. J., Bale, C., and Adam, P. (2004). The influence of fire and rainfall upon seedling recruitment in sand-mass (wallum) heathland of north-eastern New South Wales. Australian Journal of Botany 52, 93–118.
The influence of fire and rainfall upon seedling recruitment in sand-mass (wallum) heathland of north-eastern New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hatton, T., and Evans, R. (1998). Dependence of ecosystems on groundwater and its significance to Australia. Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Jacob, D., Taylor, M., Bindi, M., Brown, S., Camilloni, I., Diedhiou, A., Djalante, R., Ebi, K. L., Engelbrecht, F., Guiot, J., Hijioka, Y., Mehrotra, S., Payne, A., Seneviratne, S. I., Thomas, A., Warren, R., and Zhou, G. (2018). Impacts of 1.5°C global warming on natural and human systems. In ‘Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5°C above Pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty’. (Eds V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield.) pp. 175–311. (IPCC.) Available at https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Chapter3_Low_Res.pdf

Hoeppner, S. S., Shaffer, G. P., and Perkins, T. E. (2008). Through droughts and hurricanes: tree mortality, forest structure, and biomass production in a coastal swamp targeted for restoration in the Mississippi River Deltaic Plain. Forest Ecology and Management 256, 937–948.
Through droughts and hurricanes: tree mortality, forest structure, and biomass production in a coastal swamp targeted for restoration in the Mississippi River Deltaic Plain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hopfensperger, K. N., Kaushal, S. S., Findlay, S. E. G., and Cornwell, J. C. (2009). Influence of plant communities on denitrification in a tidal freshwater marsh of the Potomac River, United States. Journal of Environmental Quality 38, 618–626.
Influence of plant communities on denitrification in a tidal freshwater marsh of the Potomac River, United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19202032PubMed |

Hsueh, Y. H., Chambers, J. L., Krauss, K. W., Allen, S. T., and Keim, R. F. (2016). Hydrologic exchanges and baldcypress water use on deltaic hummocks, Louisiana, USA. Ecohydrology 9, 1452–1463.
Hydrologic exchanges and baldcypress water use on deltaic hummocks, Louisiana, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hui, C., and McGeoch, M. A. (2014). Zeta Diversity as a concept and metric that unifies incidence-based biodiversity patterns. American Naturalist 184, 684–694.
Zeta Diversity as a concept and metric that unifies incidence-based biodiversity patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

IPCC (2014). ‘Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.’ (Eds R. K. Pachauri and L. A. Meyer.) Number 9291691437. (IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland.)

Janousek, C. N., and Folger, C. L. (2014). Variation in tidal wetland plant diversity and composition within and among coastal estuaries: assessing the relative importance of environmental gradients. Journal of Vegetation Science 25, 534–545.
Variation in tidal wetland plant diversity and composition within and among coastal estuaries: assessing the relative importance of environmental gradients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnson, L. K., and Simenstad, C. A. (2015). Variation in the flora and fauna of tidal freshwater forest ecosystems along the Columbia River Estuary gradient: controlling factors in the context of river flow regulation. Estuaries and Coasts 38, 679–698.
Variation in the flora and fauna of tidal freshwater forest ecosystems along the Columbia River Estuary gradient: controlling factors in the context of river flow regulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Keith, D. A., and Scott, J. (2005). Native vegetation of coastal floodplains – a diagnosis of the major plant communities in New South Wales. Pacific Conservation Biology 11, 81–104.
Native vegetation of coastal floodplains – a diagnosis of the major plant communities in New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kirwan, M. L., and Gedan, K. B. (2019). Sea-level driven land conversion and the formation of ghost forests. Nature Climate Change 9, 450–457.
Sea-level driven land conversion and the formation of ghost forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kottler, E. J., and Gedan, K. (2020). Seeds of change: characterizing the soil seed bank of a migrating salt marsh. Annals of Botany 125, 335–344.
Seeds of change: characterizing the soil seed bank of a migrating salt marsh.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31408516PubMed |

Krauss, K. W., Duberstein, J. A., Doyle, T. W., Conner, W. H., Day, R. H., Inabinette, L. W., and Whitbeck, J. L. (2009). Site condition, structure, and growth of Baldcypress along tidal/non-tidal salinity gradients. Wetlands 29, 505–519.
Site condition, structure, and growth of Baldcypress along tidal/non-tidal salinity gradients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Krauss, K. W., Noe, G. B., Duberstein, J. A., Conner, W. H., Stagg, C. L., Cormier, N., Jones, M. C., Bernhardt, C. E., Lockaby, B. G., From, A. S., Doyle, T. W., Day, R. H., Ensign, S. H., Pierfelice, K. N., Hupp, C. R., Chow, A. T., and Whitbeck, J. L. (2018). The role of the upper tidal estuary in wetland blue carbon storage and flux. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 32, 817–839.
The role of the upper tidal estuary in wetland blue carbon storage and flux.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Langston, A. K., Kaplan, D. A., and Putz, F. E. (2017). A casualty of climate change? Loss of freshwater forest islands on Florida’s Gulf Coast. Global Change Biology 23, 5383–5397.
A casualty of climate change? Loss of freshwater forest islands on Florida’s Gulf Coast.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28675588PubMed |

Leiper, G., Glazebrook, J., Cox, D., and Rathie, K. (2019). ‘Mangroves to Mountains: a Field Guide to the Native Plants of South-East Queensland’, revised edn. (Society for Growing Australian Plants (Queensland Region), Logan River Branch: Logan, Qld, Australia.)

Liu, X. J., Conner, W. H., Song, B., and Jayakaran, A. D. (2017). Forest composition and growth in a freshwater forested wetland community across a salinity gradient in South Carolina, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 389, 211–219.
Forest composition and growth in a freshwater forested wetland community across a salinity gradient in South Carolina, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Loomis, M. J., and Craft, C. B. (2010). Carbon sequestration and nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus) accumulation in river-dominated tidal marshes, Georgia, USA. Soil Science Society of America Journal 74, 1028–1036.
Carbon sequestration and nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus) accumulation in river-dominated tidal marshes, Georgia, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lovelock, C. E., Bennion, V., Grinham, A., and Cahoon, D. R. (2011). The role of surface and subsurface processes in keeping pace with sea level rise in intertidal wetlands of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia. Ecosystems 14, 745–757.
The role of surface and subsurface processes in keeping pace with sea level rise in intertidal wetlands of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mackenzie, L., Moss, P., and Ulm, S. (2020). A late-Holocene record of coastal wetland development and fire regimes in tropical northern Australia. The Holocene 30, 1379–1390.
A late-Holocene record of coastal wetland development and fire regimes in tropical northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McGeoch, M. A., Latombe, G., Andrew, N. R., Nakagawa, S., Nipperess, D. A., Roigé, M., Marzinelli, E. M., Campbell, A. H., Vergés, A., Thomas, T., Steinberg, P. D., Selwood, K. E., Henriksen, M. V., and Hui, C. (2019). Measuring continuous compositional change using decline and decay in zeta diversity. Ecology 100, e02832.
Measuring continuous compositional change using decline and decay in zeta diversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31323117PubMed |

McKee, M., White, J. R., and Putnam-Duhon, L. A. (2016). Simulated storm surge effects on freshwater coastal wetland soil porewater salinity and extractable ammonium levels: Implications for marsh recovery after storm surge. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 181, 338–344.
Simulated storm surge effects on freshwater coastal wetland soil porewater salinity and extractable ammonium levels: Implications for marsh recovery after storm surge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mensforth, L. J., and Walker, G. R. (1996). Root dynamics of Melaleuca halmaturorum in response to fluctuating saline groundwater. Plant and Soil 184, 75–84.
Root dynamics of Melaleuca halmaturorum in response to fluctuating saline groundwater.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Middleton, B. A. (2016a). Differences in impacts of Hurricane Sandy on freshwater swamps on the Delmarva Peninsula, Mid-Atlantic Coast, USA. Ecological Engineering 87, 62–70.
Differences in impacts of Hurricane Sandy on freshwater swamps on the Delmarva Peninsula, Mid-Atlantic Coast, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Middleton, B. A. (2016b). Effects of salinity and flooding on post-hurricane regeneration potential in coastal wetland vegetation. American Journal of Botany 103, 1420–1435.
Effects of salinity and flooding on post-hurricane regeneration potential in coastal wetland vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27539261PubMed |

Mitsch, W. J., and Gosselink, J. G. (2015a). Wetland ecosystem services. In ‘Wetlands’, 5th edn. pp. 527–562. (Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA.)

Mitsch, W., and Gosselink, J. G. (2015b). Wetland hydrology. In ‘Wetlands’, 5th edn. pp. 111–161. (Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA.)

Mitsch, W., and Gosselink, J. G. (2015c). Tidal marshes: tidal freshwater wetlands. In ‘Wetlands’, 5th edn. pp. 285–309. (Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA.)

Morris, J. T., Sundareshwar, P. V., Nietch, C. T., Kjerfve, B., and Cahoon, D. R. (2002). Responses of coastal wetlands to rising sea level. Ecology 83, 2869–2877.
Responses of coastal wetlands to rising sea level.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mueller-Dombois, D., and Ellenberg, H. (1974). ‘Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology.’ (Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA.)

Myers, R. L., Belles, H. A., and Snyder, J. R. (2001). Prescribed fire in the management of Melaleuca quinquenervia in subtropical Florida. In ‘Proceedings of Invasive Species Workshop: Role of Fire in the Control and Spread of Invasive Species; Fire Conference 2000: 1st National Congress on Fire Ecology, Prevention, and Management’, 27 November–1 December 2000, San Diego, CA, USA. (Eds K. E. M. Galley, T. P. Wilson, and P. Tyrone.) pp. 132–140. (Tall Timbers Research Station: Tallahassee, FL, USA.)

Myerscough, P. J., and Clarke, P. J. (2007). Burnt to blazes: landscape fires, resilience and habitat interaction in frequency burnt coastal heath. Australian Journal of Botany 55, 91–102.
Burnt to blazes: landscape fires, resilience and habitat interaction in frequency burnt coastal heath.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Neubauer, S. C., Franklin, R. B., and Berrier, D. J. (2013). Saltwater intrusion into tidal freshwater marshes alters the biogeochemical processing of organic carbon. Biogeosciences 10, 8171–8183.
Saltwater intrusion into tidal freshwater marshes alters the biogeochemical processing of organic carbon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Nicholls, R. J. (2004). Coastal flooding and wetland loss in the 21st century: changes under the SRES climate and socio-sconomic scenarios. Global Environmental Change 14, 69–86.
Coastal flooding and wetland loss in the 21st century: changes under the SRES climate and socio-sconomic scenarios.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Novoa, V., Rojas, O., Ahumada-Rudolph, R., Saez, K., Fierro, P., and Rojas, C. (2020). Coastal wetlands: ecosystems affected by urbanization? Water 12, 698.
Coastal wetlands: ecosystems affected by urbanization?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (2013). ‘Coastal Hazard Technical Guide: Determining Coastal Hazard Areas.’ (Queensland Government: Brisbane, Qld, Australia.)

Queensland Department of Science (2015). Queensland groundwater dependent ecosystem mapping method: a method for providing baseline mapping of groundwater dependent ecosystems in Queensland. Queensland Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.

Queensland Government Statistician’s Office (2019). Queensland regional profiles: resident profile for SEQ region. Available at https://statistics.qgso.qld.gov.au/qld-regional-profiles?report-type=RES&region-type=LGA-2016&region-ids=19711,19713,19730,19731,19732,19734,19737,19743,19750,19755,19762,19765,19766,19769&custom-name=SEQ&region-type-comp=S [Verified 15 May 2020].

Rowe, C. (2007). Vegetation change following mid-Holocene marine transgression of the Torres Strait shelf: a record from the island of Mua, northern Australia. Holocene 17, 927–937.
Vegetation change following mid-Holocene marine transgression of the Torres Strait shelf: a record from the island of Mua, northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Schuerch, M., Spencer, T., Temmerman, S., Kirwan, M. L., Wolff, C., Lincke, D., McOwen, C. J., Pickering, M. D., Reef, R., Vafeidis, A. T., Hinkel, J., Nicholls, R. J., and Brown, S. (2018). Future response of global coastal wetlands to sea-level rise. Nature 561, 231.
Future response of global coastal wetlands to sea-level rise.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30209368PubMed |

Shoo, L. P., O’Mara, J., Perhans, K., Rhodes, J. R., Runting, R. K., Schmidt, S., Traill, L. W., Weber, L. C., Wilson, K. A., and Lovelock, C. E. (2014). Moving beyond the conceptual: specificity in regional climate change adaptation actions for biodiversity in South East Queensland, Australia. Regional Environmental Change 14, 435–447.
Moving beyond the conceptual: specificity in regional climate change adaptation actions for biodiversity in South East Queensland, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sloane, D. R., Ens, E., Wunungmurra, J., Falk, A., Marika, G., Maymuru, M., Towler, G., Preece, D., the Yirralka Rangers (2019). Western and Indigenous knowledge converge to explain Melaleuca forest dieback on Aboriginal land in northern Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 70, 125–139.
Western and Indigenous knowledge converge to explain Melaleuca forest dieback on Aboriginal land in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Snedaker, S. C. (1982). Mangrove species zonation: why? In ‘Contributions to the Ecology of Halophytes’. pp. 111–125. (Springer.)

Taillie, P. J., Moorman, C. E., Smart, L. S., and Pacifici, K. (2019). Bird community shifts associated with saltwater exposure in coastal forests at the leading edge of rising sea level. PLoS One 14, e0216540.
Bird community shifts associated with saltwater exposure in coastal forests at the leading edge of rising sea level.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31071148PubMed |

Tate, A. S., and Battaglia, L. L. (2013). Community disassembly and reassembly following experimental storm surge and wrack application. Journal of Vegetation Science 24, 46–57.
Community disassembly and reassembly following experimental storm surge and wrack application.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tobias, C., and Neubauer, S. C. (2019). Salt marsh biogeochemistry – an overview. In ‘Coastal Wetlands – an Integrated Ecosystem Approach’, 2nd edn. (Eds G. M. E. Perillo, E. Wolanski, D. R. Cahoon, and C. S. Hopkinson.) pp. 539–597. (Elseiver: Amsterdam, Netherlands.)

Torio, D. D., and Chmura, G. L. (2013). Assessing coastal squeeze of tidal wetlands. Journal of Coastal Research 290, 1049–1061.
Assessing coastal squeeze of tidal wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tran, D. B., and Dargusch, P. (2016). Melaleuca forests in Australia have globally significant carbon stocks. Forest Ecology and Management 375, 230–237.
Melaleuca forests in Australia have globally significant carbon stocks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Turner, C. E., Center, T. D., Burrows, D. W., and Buckingham, G. R. (1997). Ecology and management of Melaleuca quinquenervia, an invader of wetlands in Florida, USA. Wetlands Ecology and Management 5, 165–178.
Ecology and management of Melaleuca quinquenervia, an invader of wetlands in Florida, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Von Korff, B. H., Piehler, M. F., and Ensign, S. H. (2014). Comparison of denitrification between river channels and their adjoining tidal freshwater wetlands. Wetlands 34, 1047–1060.
Comparison of denitrification between river channels and their adjoining tidal freshwater wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Waltham, N. J., Burrows, D., Wegscheidl, C., Buelow, C., Ronan, M., Connolly, N., Groves, P., Marie-Audas, D., Creighton, C., and Sheaves, M. (2019). Lost floodplain wetland environments and efforts to restore connectivity, habitat, and water quality settings on the Great Barrier Reef. Frontiers in Marine Science 6, 71.
Lost floodplain wetland environments and efforts to restore connectivity, habitat, and water quality settings on the Great Barrier Reef.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Weilhoefer, C. L., Nelson, W. G., Clinton, P., and Beugli, D. M. (2013). Environmental determinants of emergent macrophyte vegetation in Pacific Northwest estuarine tidal wetlands. Estuaries and Coasts 36, 377–389.
Environmental determinants of emergent macrophyte vegetation in Pacific Northwest estuarine tidal wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

WetlandInfo (2020a). Southeast Queensland (SEQ) bioregion – facts and maps. Available at https://wetlandinfo.des.qld.gov.au/wetlands/facts-maps/bioregion-southeast-queensland-seq/ [Verified 7 May 2020].

WetlandInfo (2020b). Flora Wetland Indicator Species List. Available at https://wetlandinfo.des.qld.gov.au/wetlands/ecology/components/flora/flora-indicator-species-list.html [Verified 7 May 2020].

Wickham, H. (2016). ‘ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis.’ (Springer-Verlag New York: New York, USA)

Wickham, H., Averick, M., Bryan, J., Chang, W., McGowan, L. D., François, R., Grolemund, G., Hayes, A., Henry, L., Hester, J., Kuhn, M., Pedersen, T. L., Miller, E., Bache, S. M., Müller, K., Ooms, J., Robinson, D., Seidel, D. P., Spinu, V., Takahashi, K., Vaughan, D., Wilke, C., Woo, K., and Yutani, H. (2019). Welcome to the tidyverse. Journal of Open Source Software 4, 1686.
Welcome to the tidyverse.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Williams, K., Ewel, K. C., Stumpf, R. P., Putz, F. E., and Workman, T. W. (1999). Sea-level rise and coastal forest retreat on the west coast of Florida, USA. Ecology 80, 2045–2063.
Sea-level rise and coastal forest retreat on the west coast of Florida, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Williams, K., MacDonald, M., and Sternberg, L. D. L. (2003). Interactions of storm, drought, and sea-level rise on coastal forest: A case study. Journal of Coastal Research 19, 1116–1121.

Williams, T., Amatya, D., Conner, W., Panda, S., Xu, G., Dong, J., Trettin, C., Dong, C., Gao, X., Shi, H., Yu, K., and Wang, H. (2019). Tidal forested wetlands: mechanisms, threats, and management tools. In ‘Wetlands: Ecosystem Services, Restoration and Wise Use’. (Eds S. An and J. T. A. Verhoeven.) pp. 129–158. (Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland.)

Winter, T. C. (1999). Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems. Hydrogeology Journal 7, 28–45.
Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Woodroffe, C. D., Thom, B. G., and Chappell, J. (1985). Development of widespread mangrove swamps in mid-Holocene times in northern Australia. Nature 317, 711–713.
Development of widespread mangrove swamps in mid-Holocene times in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Zoete, T. (2001). Variation in the vegetation of Melaleuca quinquenervia dominated forested wetlands of the Moreton region. Plant Ecology 152, 29–57.
Variation in the vegetation of Melaleuca quinquenervia dominated forested wetlands of the Moreton region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |