Biosecurity risk associated with bilge water from small vessels: an evaluation of systems and operator behaviours
Lauren M. Fletcher A B , Javier Atalah A and Grant A. Hopkins AA Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand.
B Corresponding author. Email: lauren.fletcher@cawthron.org.nz
Marine and Freshwater Research 72(5) 718-731 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF20148
Submitted: 13 May 2020 Accepted: 25 September 2020 Published: 1 December 2020
Abstract
Vessel movements are considered the main anthropogenic pathway for secondary spread of marine non-indigenous species. Recent studies have highlighted the potential for viable organisms to be transported within bilge water of small vessels. In this study, a survey was conducted to (1) describe the bilge water operational profiles of a range of domestic vessels operating in New Zealand and (2) identify factors driving the level of biosecurity risk. The proportion of vessels with pre-discharge treatments was low (13.7%), confirming the potential for organisms to be viable at discharge. Significant differences in risk scores among vessel types were shown; risk scores were highest for yachts, followed by launches, trailer boats and commercial vessels. Yachts were characterised by a high frequency of use, visits to multiple regions and a high likelihood of bilge water on board when leaving port (i.e. high-risk source regions). Almost all yachts operated automatic bilge systems, suggesting that discharge occurs primarily when the volume is sufficient to trigger the pump mechanism and that associated bilge water could be carried significant distances. Validation of vessel risk profiles through targeted sampling is recommended, along with research to identify potential practical and cost-effective mitigation measures such as public awareness campaigns.
Keywords: anthropogenic spread, dispersal, non-indigenous species, pathway management, translocation, vector.
References
Anderson, M. J. (2001). A new method for non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance. Austral Ecology 26, 32–46.Anderson, L. W. (2005). California’s reaction to Caulerpa taxifolia: a model for invasive species rapid response. Biological Invasions 7, 1003–1016.
| California’s reaction to Caulerpa taxifolia: a model for invasive species rapid response.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anderson, L. G., White, P. C. L., Stebbing, P. D., Stentiford, G. D., and Dunn, A. M. (2014). Biosecurity and vector behaviour: evaluating the potential threat posed by anglers and canoeists as pathways for the spread of invasive non-native species and pathogens. PLoS One 9, e92788.
| Biosecurity and vector behaviour: evaluating the potential threat posed by anglers and canoeists as pathways for the spread of invasive non-native species and pathogens.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24717714PubMed |
Ansong, M., and Pickering, C. (2015). What’s a weed? Knowledge, attitude and behaviour of park visitors about weeds. PLoS One 10, e0135026.
| What’s a weed? Knowledge, attitude and behaviour of park visitors about weeds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26252004PubMed |
Ashton, G. V., Davidson, I., and Ruiz, G. M. (2014). Transient small boats as a long-distance coastal vector for dispersal of biofouling organisms. Estuaries and Coasts 37, 1572–1581.
| Transient small boats as a long-distance coastal vector for dispersal of biofouling organisms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Briski, E., Ghabooli, S., Bailey, S. A., and MacIsaac, H. J. (2012). Invasion risk posed by macroinvertebrates transported in ships’ ballast tanks. Biological Invasions 14, 1843–1850.
| Invasion risk posed by macroinvertebrates transported in ships’ ballast tanks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Briski, E., Chan, F. T., MacIsaac, H. J., and Bailey, S. A. (2014). A conceptual model of community dynamics during the transport stage of the invasion process: a case study of ships’ ballast. Diversity & Distributions 20, 236–244.
| A conceptual model of community dynamics during the transport stage of the invasion process: a case study of ships’ ballast.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Campbell, M. L., Bryant, D. E. P., and Hewitt, C. L. (2017). Biosecurity messages are lost in translation to citizens: implications for devolving management to citizens. PLoS One 12, e0175439.
| Biosecurity messages are lost in translation to citizens: implications for devolving management to citizens.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28403207PubMed |
Cope, R. C., Prowse, T. A. A., Ross, J. V., Wittmann, T. A., and Cassey, P. (2015). Temporal modelling of ballast water discharge and ship-mediated invasion risk to Australia. Royal Society Open Science 2, 150039.
| Temporal modelling of ballast water discharge and ship-mediated invasion risk to Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26064643PubMed |
Culver, K. L., and Kuris, A. M. (2000). The apparent eradication of a locally established introduced marine pest. Biological Invasions 2, 245–253.
| The apparent eradication of a locally established introduced marine pest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Darbyson, E., Locke, A., Hanson, J. M., and Willison, J. H. M. (2009). Marine boating habits and the potential for spread of invasive species in the Gulf of St Lawrence. Aquatic Invasions 4, 87–94.
| Marine boating habits and the potential for spread of invasive species in the Gulf of St Lawrence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Davidson, I. C., Zabin, C. J., Chang, A. L., Brown, C. W., Sytsma, M. D., and Ruiz, G. M. (2010). Recreational boats as potential vectors of marine organisms at an invasion hotspot. Aquatic Biology 11, 179–191.
| Recreational boats as potential vectors of marine organisms at an invasion hotspot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Drake, D. A. R., Mercader, R., Dobson, T., and Mandrak, N. E. (2015). Can we predict risky human behaviour involving invasive species? A case study of the release of fishes into the wild. Biological Invasions 17, 309–326.
| Can we predict risky human behaviour involving invasive species? A case study of the release of fishes into the wild.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Environment Southland (2017). Fiordland marine regional pathway management plan. (Southland Regional Council: Invercargill, New Zealand.) Available at https://www.es.govt.nz/about-us/plans-and-strategies/regional-plans/fiordland-marine-pathway-plan [Verified 18 November 2020].
Fletcher, L. M., Zaiko, A., Atalah, J., Richter, I., Dufour, C. M., Pochon, X., Wood, S. A., and Hopkins, G. A. (2017). Bilge water as a vector for the spread of marine pests: a morphological, metabarcoding and experimental assessment. Biological Invasions 19, 2851–2867.
| Bilge water as a vector for the spread of marine pests: a morphological, metabarcoding and experimental assessment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Floerl, O., Inglis, G. J., Dey, K., and Smith, A. (2009). The importance of transport hubs in stepping-stone invasions. Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 37–45.
| The importance of transport hubs in stepping-stone invasions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Floerl, O., Inglis, G. J., and Diettrich, J. (2016). Incorporating human behaviour into the risk–release relationship for invasion vectors: why targeting only the worst offenders can fail to reduce spread. Journal of Applied Ecology 53, 742–750.
| Incorporating human behaviour into the risk–release relationship for invasion vectors: why targeting only the worst offenders can fail to reduce spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forrest, B. M., Gardner, J. P. A., and Taylor, M. D. (2009). Internal borders for managing invasive marine species. Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 46–54.
| Internal borders for managing invasive marine species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Furstenberg, S., Mohn, H., and Sverud, T. (2009). Study on discharge factors for legal operational discharges to sea from vessels in Norwegian waters. DNV report number 2009-0284, revision number 2. Det Norske Veritas, Hovik, Norway.
García-Llorente, M., Martín-López, B., González, J. A., Alcorlo, P., and Montes, C. (2008). Social perceptions of the impacts and benefits of invasive alien species: implications for management. Biological Conservation 141, 2969–2983.
| Social perceptions of the impacts and benefits of invasive alien species: implications for management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gregg, M. D., Rigby, G., and Hallegraeff, G. M. (2009). Review of two decades of progress in the development of management options for reducing or eradicating phytoplankton, zooplankton and bacteria in ship’s ballast water. Aquatic Invasions 4, 521–565.
| Review of two decades of progress in the development of management options for reducing or eradicating phytoplankton, zooplankton and bacteria in ship’s ballast water.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hayden, B., Unwin, M., Roulston, H., Peacock, L., Floerl, O., Kospartov, M., and Seaward, K. (2009). Vessel movements within New Zealand: evaluation of vessel movements from the 24 ports and marinas surveyed through the port baseline survey programmes, ZBS2000-04 and ZBS2005-19. Prepared for MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Pre-clearance Directorate. MPI Technical Paper number 2014/04, Ministry for Primary Industries, Wellington, New Zealand.
Hopkins, G. A., Forrest, B. M., Jiang, W., and Gardner, J. P. A. (2011a). Successful eradication of a non-indigenous marine bivalve from a subtidal soft-sediment environment. Journal of Applied Ecology 48, 424–431.
| Successful eradication of a non-indigenous marine bivalve from a subtidal soft-sediment environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hopkins, G. A., Forrest, B. M., Piola, R. F., and Gardner, J. P. A. (2011b). Factors affecting survivorship of defouled communities and the effect of fragmentation on establishment success. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 396, 233–243.
| Factors affecting survivorship of defouled communities and the effect of fragmentation on establishment success.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hulme, P. E. (2009). Trade, transport and trouble: managing invasive species pathways in an era of globalization. Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 10–18.
| Trade, transport and trouble: managing invasive species pathways in an era of globalization.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hunt, L., Chadderton, L., Stuart, M., Cooper, S., and Carruthers, M. (2009). Results of an attempt to control and eradicate Undaria pinnatifida in Southland, New Zealand, April 1997 – November 2004. Department of Conservation, Invercargill, New Zealand.
Invasive Mussel Collaborative (2017). Preventing the spread of invasive zebra and quagga mussels: a reference guide for methods of decontaminating gear and equipment. Available at https://invasivemusselcollaborative.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/IMC-Decon-Guide-4.3.2017.pdf [Verified 18 November 2020].
International Maritime Organization (1973). ‘International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). Annex I Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil (entered into force 2 October 1983).’ (IMO: London, UK.)
Inglis, G. J., Hurren, H., Oldman, J., and Haskew, R. (2006). Using habitat suitability index and particle dispersion models for early detection of marine invaders. Ecological Applications 16, 1377–1390.
| Using habitat suitability index and particle dispersion models for early detection of marine invaders.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16937805PubMed |
Johnston, E. L., Piola, R. F., and Clark, G. (2009). The role of propagule pressure in invasion success. In ‘Biological Invasions in Marine Ecosystems: Ecological, Management, and Geographic Perspectives’. (Eds G. Rilov and J. A. Crooks.) pp. 133–151. (Springer-Verlag: Berlin Germany.)
Klein, G., MacIntosh, K., Kaczmarska, I., and Ehrman, J. M. (2010). Diatom survivorship in ballast water during trans-Pacific crossings. Biological Invasions 12, 1031–1044.
| Diatom survivorship in ballast water during trans-Pacific crossings.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Leung, B., and Mandrak, N. E. (2007). The risk of establishment of aquatic invasive species: joining invasibility and propagule pressure. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London – B. Biological Sciences 274, 2603–2609.
| The risk of establishment of aquatic invasive species: joining invasibility and propagule pressure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lockwood, J. L., Cassey, P., and Blackburn, T. (2005). The role of propagule pressure in explaining species invasions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, 223–228.
| The role of propagule pressure in explaining species invasions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lockwood, J. L., Cassey, P., and Blackburn, T. M. (2009). The more you introduce the more you get: the role of colonization pressure and propagule pressure in invasion ecology. Diversity & Distributions 15, 904–910.
| The more you introduce the more you get: the role of colonization pressure and propagule pressure in invasion ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ministry of Primary Industries (2013). Clean boats – living seas: protect our waters from harmful marine pests. A boatie’s guide to marine biosecurity. (Ministry for Primary Industries: Wellington, New Zealand.) Available at https://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/13555/direct [Verified 18 November 2020].
Molnar, J. L., Gamboa, R. L., Revenga, C., and Spalding, M. D. (2008). Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6, 485–492.
| Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morgan, S. G., Miller, S. H., Robart, M. J., and Largier, J. L. (2018). Nearshore larval retention and cross-shelf migration of benthic crustaceans at an upwelling center. Frontiers in Marine Science 5, 161.
| Nearshore larval retention and cross-shelf migration of benthic crustaceans at an upwelling center.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nanayakkara, L., Jurdi-Hage, R., Leavitt, P. R., and Wissel, B. (2018). In lakes but not in minds: stakeholder knowledge of invasive species in prairie lakes. Biological Invasions 20, 633–652.
| In lakes but not in minds: stakeholder knowledge of invasive species in prairie lakes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Non-native Species Secretariat (2018). Check, Clean, Dry - Help stop the spread of invasive plants and animals in our waters! (NNSS.) Available at http://www.nonnativespecies.org/checkcleandry/index.cfm [Verified 18 November 2020].
Perrings, C., Williamson, M., Barbier, E. B., Delfino, D., Dalmazzone, S., Shogren, J., Simmons, P., and Watkinson, A. (2002). Biological invasion risks and the public good: an economic perspective. Conservation Ecology 6, art1.
| Biological invasion risks and the public good: an economic perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pochon, X., Zaiko, A., Fletcher, L. M., Laroche, O., and Wood, S. A. (2017). Wanted dead or alive? Using metabarcoding of environmental DNA and RNA to distinguish living assemblages for biosecurity applications. PLoS One 12, e0187636.
| Wanted dead or alive? Using metabarcoding of environmental DNA and RNA to distinguish living assemblages for biosecurity applications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29095959PubMed |
Read, G. B., Inglis, G., Stratford, P., and Ahyong, S. T. (2011). Arrival of the alien fanworm Sabella spallanzanii (Gmelin, 1791) (Polychaeta: Sabellidae) in two New Zealand harbours. Aquatic Invasions 6, 273–279.
| Arrival of the alien fanworm Sabella spallanzanii (Gmelin, 1791) (Polychaeta: Sabellidae) in two New Zealand harbours.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Response Centre for the Mediterranean Sea (2003). Port reception facilities for collecting ship-generated garbage, bilge waters and oily wastes. Activity A: collection and treatment of solid and liquid wastes. Project MED.B7.4100.97.0415.8. Report prepared for the REMPEC by Environmental Protection Engineering S.A. Ltd, Piraeus, Greece.
Ruiz, G. M., Carlton, J. T., Grosholz, E. D., and Hines, A. H. (1997). Global invasions of marine and estuarine habitats by non-indigenous species: mechanisms, extent, and consequences. American Zoologist 37, 621–632.
| Global invasions of marine and estuarine habitats by non-indigenous species: mechanisms, extent, and consequences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ruiz, G. M., Fofonoff, P. W., Carlton, J. T., Wonhom, M. J., and Hines, A. H. (2000). Invasion of coastal marine communities in North America: apparent patterns, processes and biases. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31, 481–531.
| Invasion of coastal marine communities in North America: apparent patterns, processes and biases.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Seebens, H., Gastner, M. T., and Blasius, B. (2013). The risk of marine bioinvasion caused by global shipping. Ecology Letters 16, 782–790.
| The risk of marine bioinvasion caused by global shipping.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23611311PubMed |
Shanks, A. L. (2009). Pelagic larval duration and dispersal distance revisited. The Biological Bulletin 216, 373–385.
| Pelagic larval duration and dispersal distance revisited.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19556601PubMed |
Sharp, R. L., Larson, L. R., and Green, G. T. (2011). Factors influencing public preferences for invasive alien species management. Biological Conservation 144, 2097–2104.
| Factors influencing public preferences for invasive alien species management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Simberloff, D. (2009). The role of propagule pressure in biological invasions. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 40, 81–102.
| The role of propagule pressure in biological invasions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tsolaki, E., and Diamadopoulos, E. (2010). Technologies for ballast water treatment: a review. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology 85, 19–32.
| Technologies for ballast water treatment: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2010). Study of discharges incidental to normal operation of commercial fishing vessels and other non recreational vessels less than 79 feet. Report to Congress. EPA 833-R-10-005, US EPA, Office of Water, Washington, DC, USA.
Verling, E., Ruiz, G. M., Smith, L. D., Galil, B., Miller, A. W., and Murphy, K. R. (2005). Supply-side invasion ecology: characterizing propagule pressure in coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London – B. Biological Sciences 272, 1249–1257.
| Supply-side invasion ecology: characterizing propagule pressure in coastal ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wasson, K., Zabin, C. J., Bedinger, L., Diaz, M. C., and Pearse, J. S. (2001). Biological invasions of estuaries without international shipping: the importance of intraregional transport. Biological Conservation 102, 143–153.
| Biological invasions of estuaries without international shipping: the importance of intraregional transport.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whitman Miller, A. W., Chang, A. L., Cosentino-Manning, N., and Ruiz, G. M. (2004). A new record and eradication of the northern Atlantic alga Ascophyllum nodosum (Phaeophyceae) from San Francisco bay, California, USA. Journal of Phycology 40, 1028–1031.
| A new record and eradication of the northern Atlantic alga Ascophyllum nodosum (Phaeophyceae) from San Francisco bay, California, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams, S. L., Davidson, I. C., Pasari, J. R., Ashton, G. V., Carlton, J. T., Crafton, R. E., Fontana, R. E., Grosholz, E. D., Whitman Miller, A., Ruiz, G. M., and Zabin, C. J. (2013). Managing multiple vectors for marine invasions in an increasingly connected world. Bioscience 63, 952–966.
| Managing multiple vectors for marine invasions in an increasingly connected world.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wonham, M. J., Byers, J. E., Grosholz, E. D., and Leung, B. (2013). Modeling the relationship between propagule pressure and invasion risk to inform policy and management. Ecological Applications 23, 1691–1706.
| Modeling the relationship between propagule pressure and invasion risk to inform policy and management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24261049PubMed |
Zuur, A. F., Ieno, E. N., and Elphick, C. S. (2010). A protocol for data exploration to avoid common statistical problems. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 1, 3–14.
| A protocol for data exploration to avoid common statistical problems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |