The changing face of Hendra virus: what do we really know for certain?
J. R. Gilkerson A *A
James Gilkerson is an equine veterinarian whose research interests focus on the diagnosis, epidemiology and prevention of infectious diseases. James is currently a professor of veterinary microbiology and director of the Centre for Equine Infectious Disease at the Melbourne Veterinary School. |
Abstract
There have been many discoveries reported since the first description in 1994 of a novel paramyxovirus affecting horses. The ecology of this virus in the natural reservoir host has been described, and a vaccine developed to protect horses from disease. However, there is much still to learn about Hendra virus (HeV) ecology and epidemiology. How does the virus transmit from bats to horses? Why is transmission generally sporadic in nature and what factors influence inter-species transmission? With the discovery in an equine case of a variant strains of HeV not detectable by routine diagnostic methods, much of our current knowledge of the ecology of this virus in its natural host is once again challenged.
Keywords: bats, ecology, equine, henipavirus, Hendra virus, horses, variant, zoonosis.
James Gilkerson is an equine veterinarian whose research interests focus on the diagnosis, epidemiology and prevention of infectious diseases. James is currently a professor of veterinary microbiology and director of the Centre for Equine Infectious Disease at the Melbourne Veterinary School. |
References
1 Murray K et al. (1995) A novel morbillivirus pneumonia of horses and its transmission to humans. Emerg Infect Dis 1, 31-33.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
2 Murray K et al. (1995) A morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans. Science 268, 94-97.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
3 Hooper PT et al. (1996) The retrospective diagnosis of a second outbreak of equine morbillivirus infection. Aust Vet J 74, 244-245.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
4 Marsh GA et al. (2011) Experimental infection of horses with Hendra virus/Australia/horse/2008/Redlands. Emerg Infect Dis 17, 2232-2238.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
5 Dups J et al. (2014) Subclinical infection without encephalitis in mice following intranasal exposure to Nipah virus-Malaysia and Nipah virus-Bangladesh. Virol J 11, 102.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
6 Dups J et al. (2012) A new model for Hendra virus encephalitis in the mouse. PLoS One 7, e40308.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
7 Middleton DJ et al. (2017) Experimental Hendra virus infection of dogs: virus replication, shedding and potential for transmission. Aust Vet J 95, 10-18.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
8 Middleton DJ et al. (2002) Experimental Nipah virus infection in pigs and cats. J Comp Pathol 126, 124-136.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
9 Williamson MM et al. (1998) Transmission studies of Hendra virus (equine morbillivirus) in fruit bats, horses and cats. Aust Vet J 76, 813-818.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
10 Woon AP et al. (2020) Acute experimental infection of bats and ferrets with Hendra virus: insights into the early host response of the reservoir host and susceptible model species. PLoS Pathog 16, e1008412.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
11 Breed AC et al. (2011) Evidence of endemic Hendra virus infection in flying-foxes (Pteropus conspicillatus) – implications for disease risk management. PLoS ONE 6, e28816.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
12 Breed AC et al. (2013) The distribution of henipaviruses in Southeast Asia and Australasia: is Wallace’s line a barrier to Nipah virus? PLoS ONE 8, e61316.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
13 Edson D et al. (2015) Flying-fox roost disturbance and Hendra virus spillover risk. PLoS ONE 10, e0125881.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
14 Edson D et al. (2015) Routes of Hendra virus excretion in naturally infected flying-foxes: implications for viral transmission and spillover risk. PLoS ONE 10, e0140670.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
15 Field H et al. (2012) Ecological aspects of Hendra virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 359, 11-23.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
16 Field H et al. (2011) Hendra virus infection dynamics in Australian fruit bats. PLoS ONE 6, e28678.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
17 Annand EJ et al. (2022) Novel Hendra virus variant detected by sentinel surveillance of horses in Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 28, 693-704.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
18 Peel AJ et al. (2022) Novel Hendra virus variant circulating in black flying foxes and grey-headed flying foxes, Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 28, 1043-1047.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
19 Wang J et al. (2021) A new Hendra virus genotype found in Australian flying foxes. Virol J 18, 197.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
20 Field HE et al. (2000) A fatal case of Hendra virus infection in a horse in north Queensland: clinical and epidemiological features. Aust Vet J 78, 279-280.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
21 Ball MC et al. (2014) Clinical review of Hendra virus infection in 11 horses in New South Wales, Australia. Aust Vet J 92, 213-218.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
22 Selvey LA et al. (1995) Infection of humans and horses by a newly described morbillivirus. Med J Aust 162, 642-645.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
23 Middleton D (2014) Hendra virus. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 30, 579-589.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
24 Hanna JN et al. (2006) Hendra virus infection in a veterinarian. Med J Aust 185, 562-564.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
25 Field H et al. (2010) Hendra virus outbreak with novel clinical features, Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 16, 338-340.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
26 Middleton D et al. (2014) Hendra virus vaccine, a one health approach to protecting horse, human, and environmental health. Emerg Infect Dis 20, 372-379.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
27 Pallister J et al. (2011) A recombinant Hendra virus G glycoprotein-based subunit vaccine protects ferrets from lethal Hendra virus challenge. Vaccine 29, 5623-5630.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
28 Bonaparte MI et al. (2005) Ephrin-B2 ligand is a functional receptor for Hendra virus and Nipah virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102, 10652-10657.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
29 Wiethoelter AK et al. (2017) “We’ve learned to live with it” – a qualitative study of Australian horse owners’ attitudes, perceptions and practices in response to Hendra virus. Prev Vet Med 140, 67-77.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
30 Playford EG et al. (2010) Human Hendra virus encephalitis associated with equine outbreak, Australia, 2008. Emerg Infect Dis 16, 219-223.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
31 Field H et al. (2015) Spatiotemporal aspects of Hendra virus infection in pteropid bats (flying-foxes) in eastern Australia. PLoS ONE 10, e0144055.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
32 Wang J et al. (2024) Detection of a Hendra Virus Genotype 1 Variant in a Flying Fox, Australia. In Hendra@30 Henipavirus International Conference, 8–11 December 2024, Geelong, Vic., Australia. CEPI and CSIRO. Poster P-18, p. 38. https://www.hendra30.com/conference-booklet.pdf
33 Taylor J et al. (2022) Novel variant Hendra virus genotype 2 infection in a horse in the greater Newcastle region, New South Wales, Australia. One Health 15, 100423.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
34 Ma AZ et al. (2025) Functional assessment of the glycoproteins of a novel Hendra virus variant reveals contrasting fusogenic capacities of the receptor-binding and fusion glycoproteins. mBio 16, e0348223.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
