Free living amoebae and human disease
Evan Bursle A and Jennifer Robson BA Sullivan Nicolaides Pathology
Whitmore Street
Taringa, Qld 4068, Australia
Email: evanbursle@gmail.com
B Sullivan Nicolaides Pathology
Whitmore Street
Taringa, Qld 4068, Australia
Email: jenny_robson@snp.com.au
Microbiology Australia 37(1) 20-24 https://doi.org/10.1071/MA16009
Published: 11 February 2016
Abstract
Pathogenic FLA are ubiquitous protozoans and despite frequent human contact remain a rare cause of often devastating infection with poor prognosis. Given changes in climate, human encroachment into the environment, increasing immunosuppression, and improving diagnostic capacity, it is likely we will see increased cases in the future. Early diagnosis is challenging but crucial to achieving a favourable outcome. It is best facilitated by improved awareness of FLA disease, appropriate clinical suspicion and early diagnostic testing.
References
[1] Qvarnstrom, Y. et al. (2009) Molecular confirmation of Sappinia pedata as a causative agent of amoebic encephalitis. J. Infect. Dis. 199, 1139–1142.| Molecular confirmation of Sappinia pedata as a causative agent of amoebic encephalitis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXltVOms7w%3D&md5=3bd48f55663dd45d9624cca171020b39CAS | 19302010PubMed |
[2] Mandell, G.L. et al. (2015) Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.
[3] Chappell, C.L. et al. (2001) Standardized method of measuring Acanthamoeba antibodies in sera from healthy human subjects. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 8, 724–730.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXltlehsrk%3D&md5=46196aaa3eded85bf9175bd4ca3cd576CAS | 11427418PubMed |
[4] Bravo, F.G. and Seas, C. (2012) Balamuthia mandrillaris amoebic encephalitis: an emerging parasitic infection. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 14, 391–396.
| Balamuthia mandrillaris amoebic encephalitis: an emerging parasitic infection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22729402PubMed |
[5] Marciano-Cabral, F. et al. (1987) Specificity of antibodies from human sera for Naegleria species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25, 692–697.
| 1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXhslCgt70%3D&md5=37de77e5c5428a767a1a153311881ddcCAS | 2437151PubMed |
[6] Carter, R.F. et al. (1981) A fatal case of meningoencephalitis due to a free-living amoeba of uncertain identity–probably Acanthamoeba Sp. Pathology 13, 51–68.
| A fatal case of meningoencephalitis due to a free-living amoeba of uncertain identity–probably Acanthamoeba Sp.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaL3M7nsVentw%3D%3D&md5=6fd0bf3794356b8bcb3228a30b405943CAS | 6261208PubMed |
[7] Harwood, C.R. et al. (1988) Isolation of Acanthamoeba from a cerebral abscess. Med. J. Aust. 148, 47.
| 1:STN:280:DyaL1c%2Fptl2lsg%3D%3D&md5=5cc379f9e14b83569f2c664848b92a32CAS | 3336301PubMed |
[8] Azzam, R. et al. (2015) Acanthamoeba encephalitis: isolation of genotype T1 in mycobacterial liquid culture medium. J. Clin. Microbiol. 53, 735–739.
| Acanthamoeba encephalitis: isolation of genotype T1 in mycobacterial liquid culture medium.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25502534PubMed |
[9] Trabelsi, H. et al. (2012) Pathogenic free-living amoebae: epidemiology and clinical review. Pathol. Biol. (Paris) 60, 399–405.
| Pathogenic free-living amoebae: epidemiology and clinical review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC38rmslCnsg%3D%3D&md5=9cb335aec83229377047961df064ff71CAS | 22520593PubMed |
[10] Marciano-Cabral, F. and Cabral, G. (2003) Acanthamoeba spp. as agents of disease in humans. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16, 273–307.
| Acanthamoeba spp. as agents of disease in humans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 12692099PubMed |
[11] Siddiqui, R. and Khan, N.A. (2012) Biology and pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba. Parasit. Vectors 5, 6.
| Biology and pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22229971PubMed |
[12] Kemble, S.K. et al. (2012) Fatal Naegleria fowleri infection acquired in Minnesota: possible expanded range of a deadly thermophilic organism. Clin. Infect. Dis. 54, 805–809.
| Fatal Naegleria fowleri infection acquired in Minnesota: possible expanded range of a deadly thermophilic organism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22238170PubMed |
[13] Siddiqui, R. and Khan, N.A. (2014) Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria fowleri: an old enemy presenting new challenges. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 8, e3017.
| Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria fowleri: an old enemy presenting new challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25121759PubMed |
[14] Cooter, R. (2002) The history of the discovery of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis. Aust. Fam. Physician 31, 399–400.
| 12043140PubMed |
[15] Fowler, M. and Carter, R.F. (1965) Acute pyogenic meningitis probably due to Acanthamoeba sp.: a preliminary report. BMJ 2, 734–742.
| Acute pyogenic meningitis probably due to Acanthamoeba sp.: a preliminary report.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[16] Carter, R.F. (1968) Primary amoebic meningo-encephalitis: clinical, pathological and epidemiological features of six fatal cases. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 96, 1–25.
| Primary amoebic meningo-encephalitis: clinical, pathological and epidemiological features of six fatal cases.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaF1czmtlOjtQ%3D%3D&md5=8f42c04805a3dfa8268c002b3960f8ebCAS | 5667848PubMed |
[17] Dorsch, M.M. et al. (1983) The epidemiology and control of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis with particular reference to South Australia. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 77, 372–377.
| The epidemiology and control of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis with particular reference to South Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaL2c%2FhvVKrsQ%3D%3D&md5=bdaa299998f7cf0162b58b88ee0754dbCAS | 6623596PubMed |
[18] National Health and Medical Research Council Australia (2011) Natural Resource Management Ministerial C. Australian drinking water guidelines 2011: national water quality management strategy. Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council.
[19] Schlessinger, S. et al. (2010) Balamuthia mandrillaris transmitted through organ transplantation – Mississippi, 2009. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 59, 1165–1170.
[20] Carter, R.F. et al. (1981) A fatal case of meningoencephalitis due to a free-living amoeba of uncertain identity–probably Acanthamoeba sp. Pathology 13, 51–68.
| A fatal case of meningoencephalitis due to a free-living amoeba of uncertain identity–probably Acanthamoeba sp.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaL3M7nsVentw%3D%3D&md5=6fd0bf3794356b8bcb3228a30b405943CAS | 6261208PubMed |
[21] Reed, R.P. et al. (1997) Fatal granulomatous amoebic encephalitis caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris. Med. J. Aust. 167, 82–84.
| 1:STN:280:DyaK2szpsFGmtw%3D%3D&md5=c04c4179ececb1c906fd9a9b1d827bf7CAS | 9251693PubMed |
[22] Hill, C.P. et al. (2011) Balamuthia amebic meningoencephalitis and mycotic aneurysms in an infant. Pediatr. Neurol. 45, 45–48.
| Balamuthia amebic meningoencephalitis and mycotic aneurysms in an infant.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21723460PubMed |
[23] Doyle, J.S. et al. (2011) Balamuthia mandrillaris brain abscess successfully treated with complete surgical excision and prolonged combination antimicrobial therapy. J. Neurosurg. 114, 458–462.
| Balamuthia mandrillaris brain abscess successfully treated with complete surgical excision and prolonged combination antimicrobial therapy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21073255PubMed |
[24] Moriarty, P. et al. (2014) Balamuthia mandrillaris encephalitis: survival of a child with severe meningoencephalitis and review of the literature. J. Pediatric Infect. Dis. Soc. 3, e4–e9.
| Balamuthia mandrillaris encephalitis: survival of a child with severe meningoencephalitis and review of the literature.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26624913PubMed |
[25] Finnin, P.J. et al. (2007) Multifocal Balamuthia mandrillaris infection in a dog in Australia. Parasitol. Res. 100, 423–426.
| Multifocal Balamuthia mandrillaris infection in a dog in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17033842PubMed |
[26] Patel, D.V. and McGhee, C.N. (2009) Acanthamoeba keratitis: a comprehensive photographic reference of common and uncommon signs. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 37, 232–238.
| Acanthamoeba keratitis: a comprehensive photographic reference of common and uncommon signs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19723132PubMed |
[27] Visvesvara, G.S. et al. (2007) Pathogenic and opportunistic free-living amoebae: Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri, and Sappinia diploidea. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 50, 1–26.
| Pathogenic and opportunistic free-living amoebae: Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri, and Sappinia diploidea.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXmtVOhsb8%3D&md5=244349c111afc5e8f2750c7014c89954CAS | 17428307PubMed |
[28] da Rocha-Azevedo, B, Tanowitz, HB and Marciano-Cabral, F (2009) Diagnosis of infections caused by pathogenic free-living amoebae. Interdisciplinary perspectives on infectious diseases 2009, 251406.
| Diagnosis of infections caused by pathogenic free-living amoebae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19657454PubMed |
[29] Tu, E.Y. et al. (2008) The relative value of confocal microscopy and superficial corneal scrapings in the diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Cornea 27, 764–772.
| The relative value of confocal microscopy and superficial corneal scrapings in the diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18650660PubMed |
[30] Hahn, T.-W. et al. (1998) Acridine orange staining for rapid diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Jpn. J. Ophthalmol. 42, 108–114.
| Acridine orange staining for rapid diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK1c3kvFChsQ%3D%3D&md5=0e8e77b4bf69fbe8c8123a2f205fb4bfCAS | 9587842PubMed |
[31] Grossniklaus, H.E. et al. (2003) Evaluation of hematoxylin and eosin and special stains for the detection of Acanthamoeba keratitis in penetrating keratoplasties. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 136, 520–526.
| Evaluation of hematoxylin and eosin and special stains for the detection of Acanthamoeba keratitis in penetrating keratoplasties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 12967807PubMed |
[32] Schuster, F.L. (2002) Cultivation of pathogenic and opportunistic free-living amebas. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 15, 342–354.
| Cultivation of pathogenic and opportunistic free-living amebas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 12097243PubMed |
[33] Qvarnstrom, Y. et al. (2006) Multiplex real-time PCR assay for simultaneous detection of Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, and Naegleria fowleri. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44, 3589–3595.
| Multiplex real-time PCR assay for simultaneous detection of Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, and Naegleria fowleri.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtFyktLzM&md5=d39ea1cf068516c3087f0cbe4fdf1994CAS | 17021087PubMed |
[34] Barratt, J.L.N. et al. (2010) Importance of nonenteric protozoan infections in immunocompromised people. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 23, 795–836.
| Importance of nonenteric protozoan infections in immunocompromised people.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cfnvFOquw%3D%3D&md5=aa2e6831f43a67eb1252f602598e654bCAS |
[35] Cope, J. et al. (2013) Increased patient survival: miltefosine for treatment of free-living ameba infections caused by Acanthamoeba and Balamuthia [Poster]. Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists’ Annual Conference. Pasadena, California.
[36] Deetz, T.R. et al. (2003) Successful treatment of Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis: presentation of 2 cases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37, 1304–1312.
| Successful treatment of Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis: presentation of 2 cases.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 14583863PubMed |
[37] Schuster, F.L. et al. (2006) In-vitro activity of miltefosine and voriconazole on clinical isolates of free-living amebas: Balamuthia mandrillaris, Acanthamoeba spp., and Naegleria fowleri. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 53, 121–126.
| In-vitro activity of miltefosine and voriconazole on clinical isolates of free-living amebas: Balamuthia mandrillaris, Acanthamoeba spp., and Naegleria fowleri.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XjsVGgsbk%3D&md5=f41ad3752c4cf40fb568c7d09d7773f8CAS | 16579814PubMed |
[38] Dart, J. K. et al. (2009) Acanthamoeba keratitis: diagnosis and treatment update 2009. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 148, 487–99e2.
| Acanthamoeba keratitis: diagnosis and treatment update 2009.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19660733PubMed |
[39] Butler, T.K.H. et al. (2005) Six‐year review of Acanthamoeba keratitis in New South Wales, Australia: 1997–2002. Clin. Experiment. Ophthalmol. 33, 41–46.
| Six‐year review of Acanthamoeba keratitis in New South Wales, Australia: 1997–2002.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
[40] Vemuganti, G.K. et al. (2005) Granulomatous inflammation in Acanthamoeba keratitis: an immunohistochemical study of five cases and review of literature. Indian J. Med. Microbiol. 23, 231–238.
| 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2MnksV2quw%3D%3D&md5=44458773b9231d1ac1a4f77e75fe7fa5CAS | 16327118PubMed |