Nitrogen responses of canola in low to medium rainfall environments of Western Australia
Mark Seymour A F , Sally Sprigg B , Bob French B , Jackie Bucat C , Raj Malik D and Martin Harries E
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Agriculture and Food, PMB 50 Melijinup Road, Esperance, WA 6450, Australia.
B Department of Agriculture and Food, Great Eastern Highway, Merredin, WA 6415, Australia.
C Department of Agriculture and Food, Baron-Hay Court, South Perth, WA 6151, Australia.
D Department of Agriculture and Food, 10 Dore Street, Katanning, WA 6317, Australia.
E Department of Agriculture and Food, 20 Gregory Street, Geraldton, WA 6530, Australia.
F Corresponding author. Email: mark.seymour@agric.wa.gov.au
Crop and Pasture Science 67(4) 450-466 https://doi.org/10.1071/CP15224
Submitted: 7 July 2015 Accepted: 8 January 2016 Published: 6 May 2016
Abstract
Canola (Brassica napus L.) is widely grown throughout all rainfall zones in south-western Australia. Yields are low by world standards, and variable in low-rainfall (<350 mm annual rainfall) and medium-rainfall (350–450 mm) zones, so that minimising production costs is a major consideration for growers in these areas. One of the major input costs is nitrogen (N) fertiliser. Fifteen N rate × application time × canola plant-type experiments were conducted in the low- and medium-rainfall zones between 2012 and 2014. In most experiments, five rates of N were tested, of ranges 0–75, 0–100, or 0–150 kg N/ha. Nitrogen was applied at four different times (seeding, or 4, 8 or 12 weeks after sowing) or split between these timings. Each experiment compared triazine-tolerant (TT), open-pollinated (OP) canola with Roundup Ready (RR) hybrid canola, and one experiment included TT hybrid and RR OP canola types. On average, RR hybrid produced 250 kg/ha, or 23% more seed and 2.2% more oil than TT OP canola, and the average gross margin of RR hybrid was AU$65/ha more than TT OP. However, seed yield and gross margin differences between RR hybrid and TT OP canola were reduced when seed yields were <1400 kg/ha.
Canola growth (dry matter) and seed yield responded positively to N fertiliser in most experiments, with 90% of maximum seed yield achieved at an average of 46 kg N/ha (s.e. 6). However, 90% of maximum gross margin was achieved at a lower average N rate of 17 kg N/ha, due primarily to the relatively small yield increase compared with the reduction in concentration of oil in the seed with N applied. Because canola growers of south-western Australia are now paid an uncapped premium for canola grain with oil concentration >42%, decreases in oil percentage have a significant financial effect, and recommended rates of N should be lower than those calculated to optimise seed yield. In 80% of cases, the first 10 kg N/ha applied provided a return on investment in N >$1.50 for every $1 invested. The next 20 kg N/ha applied provided a return on investment of $1.25 for every $1 invested 80% of the time, and further increases would most likely break even. The timing of N application had a minor effect on yield, oil and financial returns, but delaying N application would allow farmers to reduce risk under poor conditions by reducing or eliminating further inputs. Overall, our work demonstrates that a conservative approach to N supply mindful of the combined impacts of N on yield and oil is necessary in south-western Australia and that split and delayed applications are a viable risk-management strategy.
Additional keywords: canola, hybrid, nitrogen, open pollinated, timing, triazine tolerant, RoundupReady.
References
ABARES (2014) AGSURF database. Australian Bureau of Agricultural Resource Economics and Sciences. Available at: http://apps.daff.gov.au/AGSURF/ (accessed 23 February 2015).Allen EJ, Morgan DG (1972) A quantitative analysis of the effects of nitrogen on the growth, development and yield of oilseed rape. The Journal of Agricultural Science 78, 315–324.
| A quantitative analysis of the effects of nitrogen on the growth, development and yield of oilseed rape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baldock JA, Skjemstad JO (2000) Role of the soil matrix and minerals in protecting natural organic materials against biological attack. Organic Geochemistry 31, 697–710.
| Role of the soil matrix and minerals in protecting natural organic materials against biological attack.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmsFSqu70%3D&md5=78aef4eb4953d935384e9012615fdbfdCAS |
Bhatty RS (1964) Influence of nitrogen fertilization on the yield, protein, and oil content of two varieties of rape. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 44, 215–217.
| Influence of nitrogen fertilization on the yield, protein, and oil content of two varieties of rape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaF2cXksl2htb8%3D&md5=029335651f9557fd4d57dafa20d3d91cCAS |
Blackwell P, Krull E, Butler G, Herbert A, Solaiman Z (2010) Effect of banded biochar on dryland wheat production and fertiliser use in south-western Australia: an agronomic and economic perspective. Soil Research 48, 531–545.
| Effect of banded biochar on dryland wheat production and fertiliser use in south-western Australia: an agronomic and economic perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blair N, Crocker GJ (2000) Crop rotation effects on soil carbon and physical fertility of two Australian soils. Soil Research 38, 71–84.
| Crop rotation effects on soil carbon and physical fertility of two Australian soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowden B, Burgess S (1993) Estimating soil nitrogen status—ready reckoners. Technote No. 6/93. Department of Agriculture, Perth, W. Aust.
Brandt SA, Malhi SS, Ulrich D, Lafond GP, Kutcher HR, Johnston AM (2007) Seeding rate, fertilizer level and disease management effects on hybrid versus open pollinated canola (Brassica napus L.). Canadian Journal of Plant Science 87, 255–266.
| Seeding rate, fertilizer level and disease management effects on hybrid versus open pollinated canola (Brassica napus L.).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brennan RF, Bolland MDA (2007a) Effect of fertiliser phosphorus and nitrogen on the concentrations of oil and protein in grain and the grain yield of canola (Brassica napus L.) grown in south-western Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47, 984–991.
| Effect of fertiliser phosphorus and nitrogen on the concentrations of oil and protein in grain and the grain yield of canola (Brassica napus L.) grown in south-western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXos1Kgt7c%3D&md5=dafedb8f7f5f76f3f820952fdbcd0078CAS |
Brennan RF, Bolland MDA (2007b) Influence of potassium and nitrogen fertiliser on yield, oil and protein concentration of canola (Brassica napus L.) grain harvested in south-western Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47, 976–983.
| Influence of potassium and nitrogen fertiliser on yield, oil and protein concentration of canola (Brassica napus L.) grain harvested in south-western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXos1Kgt7Y%3D&md5=6fe06e303654d21aff527600eeed115fCAS |
Brennan RF, Bolland MDA (2008) Significant nitrogen by sulfur interactions occurred for canola grain production and oil concentration in grain on sandy soils in the Mediterranean-type climate of southwestern Australia. Journal of Plant Nutrition 31, 1174–1187.
| Significant nitrogen by sulfur interactions occurred for canola grain production and oil concentration in grain on sandy soils in the Mediterranean-type climate of southwestern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXnsVSlur4%3D&md5=c821dcab20c529e552fbc94a76558706CAS |
Brennan RF, Mason MG, Walton GH (2000) Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the concentrations of oil and protein in canola (Brassica napus L.) seed. Journal of Plant Nutrition 23, 339–348.
| Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the concentrations of oil and protein in canola (Brassica napus L.) seed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXhsVyju7w%3D&md5=518c73fa3eaa837591dae8671c01b04aCAS |
Brill R, Gardner M, Jenkins L, Morphett S, Bambach R, Haigh B (2014) Effect of genotype choice and agronomic management on canola performance in Northern NSW—2012 and 2013. In ‘Proceedings of the 18th Australian Research Assembly on Brassicas (ARAB)’. Barossa Valley, South Australia. p. 5. (Australian Oilseeds Federation: Sydney) Available at: www.australianoilseeds.com/conferences_workshops/ARAB/arab_2014/ARAB_2014_Presentations
Canvin DT (1965) The effect of temperature on the oil content and fatty acid composition of the oils from several oil seed crops. Canadian Journal of Botany 43, 63–69.
| The effect of temperature on the oil content and fatty acid composition of the oils from several oil seed crops.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaF2MXitlylsw%3D%3D&md5=ff46b77d19da4283b8284ea0e53a5435CAS |
Carter MR, Parton WJ, Rowland IC, Schultz JE, Steed GR (1993) Simulation of soil organic carbon and nitrogen changes in cereal and pasture systems of southern Australia. Soil Research 31, 481–491.
| Simulation of soil organic carbon and nitrogen changes in cereal and pasture systems of southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXhtVGrsLY%3D&md5=12016fc8fedd7119e3dc4a55d5c906a9CAS |
Colwell JD (1963) The estimation of phosphorus fertiliser requirements of wheat in southern New South Wales by soil analysis. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 3, 190–197.
| The estimation of phosphorus fertiliser requirements of wheat in southern New South Wales by soil analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaF2cXnvVOhsQ%3D%3D&md5=6f8ce8acab8a4d0d4beac8d63f729337CAS |
Colwell JD, Esdaile RJ (1968) The calibration, interpretation, and evaluation of tests for the phosphorus fertilizer requirements of wheat in northern New South Wales. Soil Research 6, 105–120.
| The calibration, interpretation, and evaluation of tests for the phosphorus fertilizer requirements of wheat in northern New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cowling WA (2007) Genetic diversity in Australian canola and implications for crop breeding for changing future environments. Field Crops Research 104, 103–111.
| Genetic diversity in Australian canola and implications for crop breeding for changing future environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Diggle A, Bowden B (2003) ‘Select Your Nitrogen (SYN)—A decision tool for quantifying nitrogen availability and crop response in broad acre farming systems.’ (Department of Agriculture, Western Australia: South Perth, W. Aust.)
Edmeades DC (2003) The long-term effects of manures and fertilisers on soil productivity and quality: a review. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 66, 165–180.
| The long-term effects of manures and fertilisers on soil productivity and quality: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXktFyrurs%3D&md5=e579c901fcefc9f9f321c25fe330a087CAS |
Genstat (2013) ‘Genstat for Windows 16.’ (VSN International: Hemel Hempstead, UK)
Hocking PJ, Stapper M (2001) Effects of sowing time and nitrogen fertiliser on canola and wheat, and nitrogen fertiliser on Indian mustard. I. Dry matter production, grain yield, and yield components. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 52, 623–634.
| Effects of sowing time and nitrogen fertiliser on canola and wheat, and nitrogen fertiliser on Indian mustard. I. Dry matter production, grain yield, and yield components.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hocking PJ, Kirkegaard JA, Angus JF, Gibson AH, Koetz EA (1997) Comparison of canola, Indian mustard and Linola in two contrasting environments. I. Effects of nitrogen fertilizer on dry-matter production, seed yield and seed quality. Field Crops Research 49, 107–125.
| Comparison of canola, Indian mustard and Linola in two contrasting environments. I. Effects of nitrogen fertilizer on dry-matter production, seed yield and seed quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holmes MRJ (1980) ‘Nutrition of oilseed rape crops.’ (Applied Science Publishers: Barking, UK)
Isbell RF (2002) ‘The Australian Soil Classification.’ 2nd edn (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Keating BA, Carberry PS, Hammer GL, Probert ME, Robertson MJ, Holzworth D, Huth NI, Hargreaves JNG, Meinke H, Hochman Z, McLean G, Verburg K, Snow V, Dimes JP, Silburn M, Wang E, Brown S, Bristow KL, Asseng S, Chapman S, McCown RL, Freebairn DM, Smith CJ (2003) An overview of APSIM, a model designed for farming systems simulation. European Journal of Agronomy 18, 267–288.
| An overview of APSIM, a model designed for farming systems simulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirk G (2012) Planfarm Bankwest benchmarks 2012–2013. Planfarm Pty Ltd, Geraldton, W. Aust. Available on request at: http://planfarm.com.au/contact.aspx
Mason MG, Brennan RF (1998) Comparison of growth response and nitrogen uptake by canola and wheat following application of nitrogen fertilizer. Journal of Plant Nutrition 21, 1483–1499.
| Comparison of growth response and nitrogen uptake by canola and wheat following application of nitrogen fertilizer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXksVOltLY%3D&md5=b381e64d950ffeadf203cbc74046f315CAS |
Motley K, Rice A, Harbison D (2001) Topdressing canola with urea: the importance of timing prior to rainfall. In ‘Proceedings 12th Australian. Research Assembly on Brassicas’. Geelong. Victoria. (Ed. S Marcroft) pp. 150–154. (Victorian Department of Agriculture: Melbourne)
Norton RM (1993) The effect of applied nitrogen on the growth, yield, water use and quality of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) in the Wimmera. PhD Thesis, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic., Australia.
Norton RM (2002) The response of different canola varieties to applied nitrogen. In ‘The BCG Mallee and Wimmera crop and pasture production manual’. Vol. 9, pp. 122–124. (Birchip Cropping Group: Birchip, Vic.)
Norton RM (2016) Nitrogen management to optimise canola production in Australia. Crop & Pasture Science 67, 419–438.
Pritchard FM, Eagles HA, Norton RM, Salisbury PA, Nicolas M (2000) Environmental effects on seed composition of Victorian canola. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 679–685.
| Environmental effects on seed composition of Victorian canola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ramsey BR, Callinan APL (1994) Effects of nitrogen fertiliser on canola production in north central Victoria. Animal Production Science 34, 789–796.
| Effects of nitrogen fertiliser on canola production in north central Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rayment GE, Higginson FR (1992) ‘Australian laboratory handbook of soil and water chemical methods.’ (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Reardon J, Foreman JA, Searcy RL (1966) New reactants for the colorimetric determination of ammonia. Clinica Chimica Acta 14, 403–405.
Riar A Gill G McDonald G (2014 )
Riffkin P (2011) High yields and quality are achieved from European canola types grown in the high rainfall zone of south-western Victoria. In ‘Proceedings 17th Australian Research Assembly on Brassicas’. Wagga Wagga, NSW, August 2011. (Ed. D Luckett) pp. 177–180. (NSW Department of Primary Industries: Wagga Wagga, NSW)
Robertson MJ, Holland JF, Cawley S, Potter TD, Burton W, Walton GH, Thomas G (2002) Growth and yield differences between triazine-tolerant and non-triazine-tolerant cultivars of canola. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 53, 643–651.
| Growth and yield differences between triazine-tolerant and non-triazine-tolerant cultivars of canola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schoknecht N (1997) Soil groups of Western Australia: a simple guide to the main soils of Western Australia. Report 171, 1st edn, superseded by 4th edn. Department of Agriculture and Food, South Perth, W. Aust.
Searle PL (1984) The Berthelot or indophenol reaction and its use in the analytical chemistry of nitrogen. A review. Analyst 109, 549–568.
Seymour M, Kirkegaard JA, Peoples MB, White PF, French RJ (2012) Break-crop benefits to wheat in Western Australia—insights from over three decades of research. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 1–16.
| Break-crop benefits to wheat in Western Australia—insights from over three decades of research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Si P, Mailer RJ, Galwey N, Turner DW (2003) Influence of genotype and environment on oil and protein concentrations of canola (Brassica napus L.) grown across southern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 397–407.
| Influence of genotype and environment on oil and protein concentrations of canola (Brassica napus L.) grown across southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method of determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37, 29–38.
| An examination of the Degtjareff method of determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaA2cXitlGmug%3D%3D&md5=e7a77f61db5794517104db09478fa1dcCAS |
Zhang H, Berger JD, Seymour M, Brill R, Herrmann C, Quinlan R, Knell G (2016) Relative yield and profit of Australian hybrid compared with open-pollinated canola is largely determined by growing-season rainfall. Crop & Pasture Science 67, 323–331.
