Climate change through the farming systems lens: challenges and opportunities for farming in Australia
Peter Hayman A , Lauren Rickards B , Richard Eckard B C and Deirdre Lemerle D
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A South ARDI Climate Applications, Waite Research Precinct, GPO Box 397, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia.
B Primary Industries Climate Challenges Centre, The University of Melbourne and Department of Primary Industries, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.
C Dept of Primary Industries, 1301 Hazeldean Road, Ellinbank, Vic. 3821, Australia.
D Charles Sturt University and NSW DPI, Pine Gully Road, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650, Australia.
E Corresponding author. Email: hayman.peter@sa.gov.au
Crop and Pasture Science 63(3) 203-214 https://doi.org/10.1071/CP11196
Submitted: 25 July 2011 Accepted: 6 December 2011 Published: 28 May 2012
Journal Compilation © CSIRO Publishing 2012 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Adaptation to and mitigation of climate change in Australian agriculture has included research at the plant, animal, and soil level; the farming system level; and the community and landscape level. This paper focuses on the farming systems level at which many of the impacts of a changing climate will be felt. This is also the level where much of the activity relating to adaptation and mitigation can usefully be analysed and at which existing adaptive capacity provides a critical platform for further efforts. In this paper, we use a framework of nested hierarchies introduced by J. Passioura four decades ago to highlight the need for research, development and extension (RDE) on climate change at the farming systems level to build on more fundamental soil, plant, and animal sciences and to link into higher themes of rural sociology and landscape science. The many questions asked by those managing farming systems can be categorised under four broad headings: (1) climate projections at a local scale, (2) impacts of climate projections on existing farming systems, (3) adaptation options, and (4) risks and opportunities from policies to reduce emissions. These questions are used as a framework to identify emerging issues for RDE in Australian farming systems, including the complex balance in on-farm strategies between adapting to climate change and reducing greenhouse gas concentrations.
Climate is recognised as one of the defining features of different farming systems in Australia. It follows that if the climate changes, farming systems will have to shift, adapt, or be transformed into a different land use. Given that Australian farming systems have been adaptive in the past, we address the question of the extent to which research on adaptation to climate change in farming systems is different or additional to research on farming systems in a variable climate.
References
Adger W, Barnett J (2009) Four reasons for concern about adaptation to climate change. Environment and Planning 41, 2800–2805.| Four reasons for concern about adaptation to climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Adger W, Vincent K (2005) Uncertainty in adaptive capacity. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 337, 399–410.
| Uncertainty in adaptive capacity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Adger WN, Arnell NW, Tompkins EL (2005) Successful adaptation to climate change across scales. Global Environmental Change 15, 75–76.
| Successful adaptation to climate change across scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Allen Consulting Group (2005) ‘Climate change: Risk and vulnerability. Promoting an efficient adaptation response in Australia—Final Report, March 2005.’ Report to the Australian Greenhouse Office, Department of the Environment and Heritage.
Anderies J, Ryan P, Walker HH (2006) Loss of resilience, crisis and institutional change: lessons from an intensive agricultural system in south-eastern Australia. Ecosystems 9, 865–878.
| Loss of resilience, crisis and institutional change: lessons from an intensive agricultural system in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Armson R (2011) ‘Growing wings on the way: systems thinking for messy situations.’ (Triarchy Press: London)
AusVet (2005) ‘A review of the structure and dynamics of the Australian Dairy Cattle Industry.’ A report to Australian Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF) by AusVet Animal Health Services. (DAFF: Canberra)
Baldock JA, Wheeler I, McKenzie N, McBratney A (2012) Soils and climate change: potential impacts on carbon stocks, greenhouse gas emissions and future research for Australian agriculture. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 269–283.
Barlow S, Grace P, Stone R, Gibbs M, Howden M, Howieson J, Ugalde D, Miller C, Eckard R, Rowland S, Stadler F (2010) National Climate Change Adaptation Research Plan: Primary Industries. National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Griffith University, Qld, May 2010.
Barnett J, O’Neill S (2010) Maladaptation. Global Environmental Change–Human and Policy Dimensions 20, 211–213.
| Maladaptation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barr N (2009) ‘The house on the hill: the transformation of Australia’s farming communities.’ (Halstead Press: Canberra)
Bawden R (1990) Towards action researching systems. In ‘Action research for change and development’. (Ed. O Zuber-Skerritt) (CALT, Griffith University: Brisbane)
Bryan BA, King D, Wang E (2010) Biofuels agriculture: landscape-scale trade-offs between fuel, economics, carbon, energy, food, and fiber. Global Change Biology – Bioenergy 2, 330–345.
| Biofuels agriculture: landscape-scale trade-offs between fuel, economics, carbon, energy, food, and fiber.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burton I (2011) ‘Climate change and the adaptation deficit. The Earthscan Reader on Adaptation to Climate Change.’ (Eds E Schipper, I Burton) pp. 89–98. (Earthscan: London)
Carberry PS (2001) Are science rigour and industry relevance both achievable in participatory action research? In ‘Proceedings of the 10th Australian Agronomy Conference’. Hobart, Tas. (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW) Available at: http://regional.org.au/au/asa/2001/plenary/5/carberry.htm
Chambers R (1994) Foreword. Intermediate technology publications. In ‘Beyond farmer first. Rural people’s knowledge, agricultural research and extension practice’. (Eds I Scoones, J Thompson) (Intermediate Technology Publications: London)
Cork S (Ed.) (2010) Resilience of social-ecological systems. In ‘Resilience and transformation: preparing Australia for uncertain futures’. pp. 131–142. (Australia 21 and CSIRO: Melbourne)
Cornish PS (2010) 2010 Donald Oration. In ‘Food Security from Sustainable Agriculture. Proceedings of the 15th Agronomy Conference 2010’. Lincoln, New Zealand. (Eds H Dove, RA Culvenor) (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW) Available at: www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2010/plenary/donald-oration/cornishp
CSIRO and BoM (2007) ‘Climate change in Australia.’ Technical Report 2007. (CSIRO: Melbourne)
Cullen BR, Johnson IR, Eckard RJ, Lodge GM, Walker RG, Rawnsley RP, McCaskill MR (2009) Climate change impacts on Australian pasture systems. Crop & Pasture Science 60, 933–942.
| Climate change impacts on Australian pasture systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
de Klein CAM, Eckard RJ (2008) Targeted technologies for nitrous oxide abatement from animal agriculture. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 14–20.
| Targeted technologies for nitrous oxide abatement from animal agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXovVKi&md5=dc84c7b73c83e65c908ca4316c1dc1ceCAS |
Dillon JL (1992) ‘The farm as a purposeful system.’ Miscellaneous Publication No. 10. (Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management, University of New England: Armidale, NSW)
Doudle S, Hayman PT, Wilhelm N, Alexander BM (2009) Farmer’s capacity to adapt to climate change—SA case studies. Agricultural Science 21, 13–19.
Eckard R (2008) The 3Ps of Climate Change: Physical, Policy and Peripheral Impacts of Climate Change on the Dairy Industry.
Eckard RJ, Cullen BR (2011) Impacts of future climate scenarios on N2O emissions from pasture-based dairy systems in south eastern Australia. Animal Feed Science and Technology 166–167, 736–748.
| Impacts of future climate scenarios on N2O emissions from pasture-based dairy systems in south eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eckard RJ, Grainger CJ, de Klein CAM (2010) Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production – a review. Livestock Science 130, 47–56.
| Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production – a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eriksen S, Aldunce P, Bahinipati CS, Martins RD, Molefe JI, Nhemachena C, O’Brien K, Olorunfemi F, Park J, Sygna L, Ulsrud K (2011) When not every response to climate change is a good one: identifying principles for sustainable adaptation. Climate and Development 3, 7–20.
| When not every response to climate change is a good one: identifying principles for sustainable adaptation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ford JD, Keskitalo ECH, Smith T, Pearce T, Berrang-Ford L, Duerden F, Smit B (2010) Case study and analogue methodologies in climate change vulnerability research. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change 1, 374–392.
Fritze JG, Blashki GA, Burke S, Wiseman J (2008) Hope, despair and transformation: Climate change and the promotion of mental health and wellbeing. International Journal of Mental Health Systems 2, 13
| Hope, despair and transformation: Climate change and the promotion of mental health and wellbeing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Garnaut R (2008) ‘The Garnaut climate change review.’ (Cambridge University Press: Melbourne) Available at: www.garnaultreview.org.au
Garnaut R (2010) Climate change and the Australian agricultural and resource industries. The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 54, 9–25.
| Climate change and the Australian agricultural and resource industries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Garnaut R (2011a) Transforming rural land use. Update Paper 4. Garnaut Climate Change Review Update 2011. Garnaut Climate Change Review—Update 2011, Canberra, ACT.
Garnaut R (2011b) Transforming rural land use. Update 5 of the 2008 Garnaut Report, Australian Government.
Gibbons M, Limoges C, Nowotny H, Schwartzmann S, Scott P, Trow M (1994) ‘The new production of knowledge: the dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies.’ (Sage: London)
Hafi A, Heaney A, Beare S (2006) Investment in irreversible irrigation technology under uncertainty: A case study of the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. In ‘ABARE Conference Paper 06.2. 50th Annual Conference of the Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society’. Sydney, 8–10 February.
Hallegatte S (2009) Strategies to adapt to an uncertain climate change. Global Environmental Change 19, 240–247.
| Strategies to adapt to an uncertain climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hamblin AP (1996) Agronomy and the environment. In ‘Proceedings of the 8th Australian Agronomy Conference’. (Ed. M. Asghar) University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. pp. 22–42. (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW)
Hammer GL, Nicholls N, Mitchell CD (2000) ‘Applications of seasonal climate forecasting in agricultural and natural ecosystems.’ (Springer: The Netherlands)
Handmer J, Dovers S (1996) A typology of resilience: rethinking institutions for sustainable development. Organization & Environment 9, 482–511.
| A typology of resilience: rethinking institutions for sustainable development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hansen JW (2002) Realizing the potential benefits of cliamte prediction to agriculture: issues, approaches, challenges. Agricultural Systems 74, 309–330.
| Realizing the potential benefits of cliamte prediction to agriculture: issues, approaches, challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hayman PT, Alexander BM (2010) Wheat, wine and pie charts: advantages and limits to using current variability to think about future change in South Australia’s climate. In ‘Managing Climate Change. Papers from the GREENHOUSE 2009 Conference’. (Eds I Jubb, P Holper, W Cai) pp. 113–122. (CSIRO: Melbourne)
Hayman PT, McCarthy M, Grace WG (2009) Assessing and managing the risk of heatwaves in South-Eastern Australian winegrowing regions. The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 543, 22–24.
Hearne AB (1996) An agronomist’s odyssey. Donald Oration. In ‘Proceedings of the 8th Australian Agronomy Conference’. (Ed. M Asghar) University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. pp. 2–16. (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW)
Hennessey KJ, Whetton PH, Preston B (2010) Climate projections. In ‘Adapting griculture to climate change. Preparing Australian agriculture, forestry and fisheries for the future’. (Eds CJ Stokes, SM Howden) pp. 13–20. (CSIRO: Melbourne)
Hochman Z, VanRees H, Carberry P, Hunt J, McCown R, Gartmann A, Holzworth D, van Rees S, Dalgliesh N, Long W, Peake A, Poulton P (2009) Re-inventing model-based decision support with Australian dryland farmers: 4. Yield Prophet® helps farmers monitor and manage crops in a variable climate. Crop & Pasture Science 60, 1057–1070.
| Re-inventing model-based decision support with Australian dryland farmers: 4. Yield Prophet® helps farmers monitor and manage crops in a variable climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hogan A, Berry H, Ng SP, Bode A (2011) Decisions made by farmers that relate to climate change. RIRDC, Canberra. RIRDC Publication No. 10/208.
Holper P (2010) Twenty years of Australian climate change science research program. In ‘Managing Climate Change. Papers from the Greenhouse 2009 Conference’. (Eds I Jubb, P Holper, W Cai) pp. 31–38. (CSIRO: Melbourne)
Howden SM, Stokes CJ (2010) Introduction. In ‘Adapting agriculture to climate change. Preparing Australian agriculutre, forestry and fisheries for the future’. (Eds CJ Stokes, SM Howden) pp. 1–11. (CSIRO: Melbourne)
Howden SM, Crimp S, Nelson R (2010) Australian agriculture in a climate of change. In ‘Managing Climate Change. Papers from the Greenhouse 2009 Conference’. (Eds I Jubb, P Holper, W Cai) pp. 101–112. (CSIRO: Melbourne)
Hulme M (2011) Meet the humanities. Nature Climate Change 1, 177–179.
| Meet the humanities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hulme M, Pielke R, Dessai S (2009) Keeping prediction in perspective. Nature 3, 2
Hutchinson MF, McIntyre S, Hobbs RJ, Sten JL, Garnett S, Kinloch J (2005) Integrating a global agro-climatic classification with bioregional boundaries in Australia. Global Ecology and Biogeography 14, 197–212.
| Integrating a global agro-climatic classification with bioregional boundaries in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ison R (2010) ‘Systems practice: how to act in a climate change world.’ (The Open University and Springer: London)
John M, Pannell D, Kingwell R (2005) Climate change and the economics of farm management in the face of land degradation: dryland salinity in Western Australia. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics 53, 443–459.
| Climate change and the economics of farm management in the face of land degradation: dryland salinity in Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jones RN, Dettmann P, Park G, Rogers M, White T (2007) The relationship between adaptation and mitigation in managing climate change risks: a regional response from north central Victoria, Australia. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 12, 685–712.
| The relationship between adaptation and mitigation in managing climate change risks: a regional response from north central Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kandlikar M, Risbey J, Dessai S (2005) Representing and communicating deep uncertainty in climate-change assessments. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 337, 443–455.
| Representing and communicating deep uncertainty in climate-change assessments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keating BA, Carberry PS, Hammer GL, Probert ME, Robertson MJ, Holzworth D, Huth NI, Hargreaves JNG, Meinke H, Hochman Z, McLean G, Verburg K, Snow V, Dimes JP, Silburn M, Wang E, Brown S, Bristow KL, Asseng S, Chapman S, McCown RL, Freebairn DM, Smith CJ (2003) An overview of APSIM, a model designed for farming systems simulation. European Journal of Agronomy 18, 267–288.
| An overview of APSIM, a model designed for farming systems simulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kiem AS, Askew LE, Sherval M, Verdon-Kidd DC, Clifton C, Austin E, Berry H, McGuirk PM (2010) ‘Drought and the future of small inland towns: drought impacts and adaptation in regional Victoria, Australia.’ A report for the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility (NCCARF). Synthesis and Integrative Research Program, Historical Case Studies (NCCARF, University of Newcastle: Newcastle)
King D, Lane A, MacDougall C, Greenhill J (2009) ‘The resilience and mental health and wellbeing of farm families experiencing climate variation in South Australia.’ (National Institute of Labour Studies Inc.: Adelaide)
Kirkegaard JA, Hunt JR (2010) Increasing productivity by matching farming system management and genotype in water-limited environments. Journal of Experimental Botany 61, 4129–4143.
| Increasing productivity by matching farming system management and genotype in water-limited environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtlShtLnL&md5=5362801ef32803782826ba4e06988794CAS |
Klein RJT, Nicholls RJ, Thomalla F (2003) Resilience to natural hazards: How useful is this concept? Global Environmental Change Part B: Environmental Hazards 5, 35–45.
| Resilience to natural hazards: How useful is this concept?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kriticos DJ, Leriche A (2010) The effects of climate data precision on fitting and projecting species niche models. Ecography 33, 115–127.
| The effects of climate data precision on fitting and projecting species niche models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lane MB, Taylor B, Robinson CJ (2009) Introduction. In ‘Contested country. Local and regional natural resources management in Australia’. (Eds MB Lane, CJ Robinson, B Taylor) pp. 1–12. (CSIRO: Australia)
Lempert R, Nakicenovic N, Sarewitz D, Schlesinger M (2004) Characterizing climate-change uncertainties for decision makers. Climatic Change 65, 1–9.
| Characterizing climate-change uncertainties for decision makers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lev L, Campbell DJ (1987) The temporal dimension in farming systems research: the importance of maintaining flexibility under conditions of uncertainty. Journal of Rural Studies 3, 123–132.
| The temporal dimension in farming systems research: the importance of maintaining flexibility under conditions of uncertainty.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
LWA (2008) A national climate change research strategy. Phase 1 Report, July 2008. Land and Water Australia, Canberra.
Malcolm LR (1990) Fifty years of farm management in Australia: survey and review. Review of Marketing and Agricultural Economics 58, 24–55.
Martens P, McEvoy D, Chang C (2009) The climate change challenge: linking vulnerability, adaptation, and mitigation. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 1, 14–18.
| The climate change challenge: linking vulnerability, adaptation, and mitigation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Martin RJ, Cornish PS, Verrell AG (1996) An integrated approach to link farming systems research, extension co-learning and simulation modelling. In ‘Proceedings of the 8th Australian Agronomy Conference’. (Ed. M Asghar) University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba. (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW) Available at: www.regional.org.au/au/asa/1996/contributed/413martin
McCown RL (2002) Changing systems for supporting farmers’ decisions: problems, paradigms, and prospects. Agricultural Systems 74, 179–220.
| Changing systems for supporting farmers’ decisions: problems, paradigms, and prospects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McGray H, Hammill A, Bradley R, Schipper EL, Parry J (2007) Weathering the storm: options for framing adaptation and development. World Resources Institute.
McKeon GM, Hall WB, Henry BH, Stone GS, Watson IW (2004) ‘Pasture degradation and recovery in Australia’s rangelands. Learning from history.’ (Queensland Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy: Brisbane)
McLeman R, Mayo D, Strebeck E, Smit B (2008) Drought adaptation in rural eastern Oklahoma in the 1930s: lessons for climate change adaptation research. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 13, 379–400.
| Drought adaptation in rural eastern Oklahoma in the 1930s: lessons for climate change adaptation research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Meinke H, Stone RS (2005) Seasonal and interannual climate forecasting: the new tool for increasing preparedness to climate variability and change in agricultural planning and operations. Climatic Change 221–253.
Meinke H, Howden SM, Struik PC, Nelson R, Rodriguez D, Chapman SC (2009) Adaptation science for agricultural and natural resource management—urgency and theoretical basis. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 1, 69–76.
| Adaptation science for agricultural and natural resource management—urgency and theoretical basis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moore AD, Bell LW, Revell DK (2009) Feed gaps in mixed farming systems: insights from the Grain and Graze program. Animal Production Science 49, 736–748.
| Feed gaps in mixed farming systems: insights from the Grain and Graze program.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mortimore M (2010) Adapting to drought in the Sahel: lessons for climate change. WIREs Climate Change 1, 10
Murphy BF, Timbal B (2008) A review of recent climate variability and climate change in southeastern Australia. International Journal of Climatology 28, 859–879.
| A review of recent climate variability and climate change in southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nelson R, Kokic P, Crimp S, Martin P, Meinke H, Howden SM, de Voil P, Nidumolu U (2010) The vulnerability of Australian rural communities to climate variability and change: Part II—Integrating impacts with adaptive capacity. Environmental Science & Policy 13, 18–27.
| The vulnerability of Australian rural communities to climate variability and change: Part II—Integrating impacts with adaptive capacity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Leary G, Anwar M (2008) Simulation of wheat grain yield under elevated CO2 conditions in the Victorian Wimmera. In ‘Proceedings of the 14th Australian Agronomy Conference’. Adelaide. (Ed. M Unkovich) (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW) Available at: www.regional.org.au
Oliver YM, Robertson MJ, Weeks C (2010) A new look at an old practice: Benefits from soil water accumulation in long fallows under Mediterranean conditions. Agricultural Water Management 98, 291–300.
| A new look at an old practice: Benefits from soil water accumulation in long fallows under Mediterranean conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pannell DJ (2010) Policy for climate change adaptation in agriculture. Available at: http://cyllene.uwa.edu.au/~dpannell/dp1003.htm
Parry ML, Carter TR (1988) The assessment of climatic variations on agriculture: A summary of results from studies in semi-arid regions. In ‘The Impact of climatic variations on agriculture. Vol. 2: Assessments in semi-arid regions’. (Eds ML Parry, TR Carter, TJ Konijn) pp. 9–60. (Kluwer: Dordrecht)
Passioura JB (1979) Accountability, philosophy and plant physiology. Search 10, 347–350.
Passioura JB (2010) Scaling up: the essence of effective agricultural research. Functional Plant Biology 37, 585–591.
| Scaling up: the essence of effective agricultural research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peck DE, Adams RM (2010) Farm-level impacts of prolonged drought: is a multiyear event more than the sum of its parts. The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 54, 43–60.
| Farm-level impacts of prolonged drought: is a multiyear event more than the sum of its parts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rebbeck MA, Duffield T (2008) South Australian farmers’ concerns and adaptation options for climate change. In ‘Proceedings of the 14th Australian Society of Agronomy Conference’. Adelaide. (Ed. M Unkovich) (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW)
Rickards L (2011) Critical Breaking Point? The effects of climate variability and other pressures on farming families 2007–2011. Report for the Birchip Cropping Group, Birchip, Victoria.
Rickards L, Howden SM (2012) Transformational adaptation: agriculture and climate change. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 240–250.
Robertson M, Carberry PS (2010) The evolving role of crop modelling in agronomy research. In ‘Proceedings of the 15th Australian Agronomy Conference’. Lincoln, New Zealand. (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW)
Robertson M, Peek C, Grima R, Oliver Y, Weeks C, Clarke M (2009) Evaluating options for adaptation to climate change by crop-livestock farmers in Western Australia. In ‘Climate 21 Conference’. Perth, W. Aust. 2009.
Rölling NG (1988) ‘Extension Science information systems in agricultural development.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Rötter RP, Carter TR, Olesen JE, Porter JR (2011) Crop-climate models need an overhaul. Nature Climate Change 1, 175–177.
| Crop-climate models need an overhaul.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Routley R, Sadras VO, Hoffman A (2010) Benchmarking farm water-use efficiency in eastern Australian dryland cropping systems. In ‘Proceedings of the 15th Australian Agronomy Conference’. Lincoln, New Zealand. (Australian Society of Agronomy/The Regional Institute: Gosford, NSW)
Russell D, Ison R, Gamble DWR (1989) ‘A critical review of rural extension theory and practice.’ (Faculty of Agriculture and Rural Development, University of Western Sydney: Richmond, Sydney)
Sarewitz D (2010) Tomorrow never knows. Nature 463, 24
| Tomorrow never knows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhvFCqsQ%3D%3D&md5=295b419d243810667b90f17e08c67fa2CAS |
Schiermeier Q (2010) The real holes in climate science. Nature 463, 284–287.
| The real holes in climate science.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXovVGmsg%3D%3D&md5=a43367c55ac3a1fe8e1473a9f4de651eCAS |
Schipper ELF (2007) ‘Climate change adaptation and development: exploring the linkages.’ (Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research: Norwich, UK)
Schneider SH, Easterling WE, Mearns LO (2000) Adaptation: Sensitivity to natural variability, agent assumptions and dynamic climate changes. Climatic Change 45, 203–221.
Scoones I, Thompson J (1994) ‘Beyond farmer first. Rural people’s knowledge, agricultural research and extension practice.’ (Intermediate Technology Publications: London)
Smith P, Olesen JE (2010) Synergies between the mitigation of, and adaptation to, climate change in agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Science 148, 543–552.
Spash CL (2007) The economics of climate change impacts ą la Stern: Novel and nuanced or rhetorically restricted? Ecological Economics 63, 706–713.
Squires VR, Tow PG (1991) ‘Dryland farming: a systems approach.’ (Sydney University Press: Sydney)
Steffen W, Sims J, Walcott J, Laughlin G (2010) Australian agriculture: coping with dangerous climate change. Regional Environmental Change 11, 205–214.
Stern N (2007) ‘The economics of climate change: the Stern review.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Sutherst RW, Maywald GF, Kriticos DJ (2007) ‘CLIMEX Version 3: user’s guide.’ (Hearne Scientific Software Pty Ltd: Melbourne)
Timbal B, Arblaster J, Braganza K, Ferabdez E, Hendon HH, Murphy B, Raupach M, Rakich C, Smith I, Whan K, Wheeler M (2010) ‘Understanding the anthropogenic nature of the observed rainfall decline across south-eastern Australia.’ CAWCR Technical Report No. 026. (Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research: Melbourne)
Vogel C, O’Brien K (2006) Who can eat information? Examining the effectiveness of seasonal climate forecasts and regional climate-risk management strategies. Climate Research 33, 111–122.
| Who can eat information? Examining the effectiveness of seasonal climate forecasts and regional climate-risk management strategies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Walker BH, Salt DA (2006) ‘Resilience thinking. Sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world.’ (Island Press: Washington, DC)
Webb LB, Barlow EWR (2008) Viticulture. In ‘Preparing Australian agriculture, forests and fisheries for the future. An overview of climate change adaptation in the Australian agricultural sector’. (Eds CJ Stokes, SM Howden) pp. 158–171. (CSIRO: Melbourne)
Webb L, Watt A, Hill T, Whiting J, Wigg F, Dunn G, Needs S, Barlow EWR (2009) ‘Extreme heat: managing grapevine response.’ (GWRDC and University of Melbourne: Melbourne)
Wilby RL, Dessai S (2010) Robust adaptation to climate change. Weather 65, 180–185.
| Robust adaptation to climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams J, Hook RA, Hamblin A (2002) Agro-ecological regions of Australia: methodologies for their derivation and key issues in resource management. CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra.
