Register      Login
Australian Journal of Chemistry Australian Journal of Chemistry Society
An international journal for chemical science
RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Development of a 3-D-printable device for continuous measuring of heavy metal ion concentrations

Charl de Villiers A , Magdalena Wajrak https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3666-2175 B * and Alex Lubansky C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Medi-Stats ANZ, 13 Mcrae Road, Sans Souci, NSW 2219, Australia.

B School of Science, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia.

C Haemograph Pty Ltd, 1/360 Ascot Vale Road, Moonee Ponds, Vic. 3039, Australia.

* Correspondence to: m.wajrak@ecu.edu.au

Handling Editor: Amir Karton

Australian Journal of Chemistry 76(12) 875-884 https://doi.org/10.1071/CH23112
Submitted: 14 June 2023  Accepted: 1 August 2023  Published online: 29 August 2023

© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3-D) printing offers the potential to create a range of tailored devices within many different industrial facilities. In this article, devices were designed and fabricated using 3-D printing to house electrodes for the testing of heavy metal concentration in hazardous fluids, particularly for biological samples such as urine or blood. The devices, connected to a syringe pump, were shown to be able to be operated without leaking. Proof of concept experiments were performed using Anodic Stripping Voltammetry (ASV) methods, demonstrating that the devices are able to be used for quick, cheap testing, showing the potential of the technique as a more hygienic analysis technique than conventional ASV with an immediacy that standard techniques such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) do not offer. With further development and validation, 3-D-printed ASV techniques may provide a robust, reliable and affordable solution for heavy metal concentration detection in remote locations.

Keywords: 3-D-printed flow cell, electroanalytical chemistry, flow analysis, hazardous samples, lead, metal ions, microfluidic techniques, voltammetry.

References

Qu C-S, Ma Z-W, Yang J, Liu Y, Bi J, Huang L. Human exposure pathways of heavy metals in a lead–zinc mining area, Jiangsu Province, China. PLoS One 2012; 7(11): e46793.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Denkhaus E, Salnikow K. Nickel essentiality, toxicity, and carcinogenicity. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2002; 42(1): 35-56.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Järup L. Hazards of heavy metal contamination. Br Med Bull 2003; 68(1): 167-182.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Analytical Methods Committee. What causes most errors in chemical analysis. Technical report, Analytical Methods. RSC Publishing; 2013.

Ambrosi A, Pumera M. 3D-printing technologies for electrochemical applications. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45(10): 2740-2755.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kreiger M, Pearce JM. Environmental life cycle analysis of distributed three-dimensional printing and conventional manufacturing of polymer products. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2013; 1: 1511-1519.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Goodyear C. Full sustainability report. Technical report. BHP Billiton; 2006.

Stetzenbach KJ, Amano M, Kreamer DK, Hodge VF. Testing the limits of ICP-MS: determination of trace elements in ground water at the part-per-trillion level. Ground Water 1994; 32(6): 976-985.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nam SH, Masamba WRL, Montaser A. Investigation of helium inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry for the detection of metals and nonmetals in aqueous solutions. Anal Chem 1993; 65(20): 2784-2790.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

10  Ashley K, Song R, Esche CA, Schlecht PC, Baron PA, Wise TJ. Ultrasonic extraction and portable anodic stripping voltammetric measurement of lead in paint, dust wipes, soil, and air: an interlaboratory evaluation. J Environ Monit 1999; 1(5): 459-464.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

11  Bard AJ, Faulkner LR. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications, 2 edn. Wiley; 2000.

12  Lonsdale W. Lead in gunshot residue by voltammetry. Technical report. School of Natural Sciences, Edith Cowan University; 2013.

13  Young J. Validation of the anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) method in analysis of lead in esperance rainwater samples by comparison with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) results. Technical report. School of Natural Science, Edith Cowan University; 2010.

14  Yunus A, Cengel Cimbala JM. Fluid Mechanics – Fundamentals and Applications. McGraw-Hill, 2010.

15  Bird BR, Stewart WE, Lightfoot EN. Transport Phenomena, 2nd edn. Wiley; 2007.

16  Crow DR. Principles and Applications of Electrochemistry. Blackie Academic Professional; 1994.

17  Wajrak M, Hart R, Prince K. Investigation of electrochemically deposited arsenic on the surface of solid gold electrodes using SIMS, SEM and Synchrotron soft X-rays. Proceedings of the 16th Australian Conference on Nuclear and Complementary Techniques of Analysis NCTA 2009; 25–27 November 2009; Sydney, NSW, Australia. AINSE Ltd, 2010. pp. 1–5.