Inferring savannah–rainforest boundary dynamics from vegetation structure and composition: a case study in New Caledonia
Thomas Ibanez A E G , Jérôme Munzinger B , Cédric Gaucherel C , Thomas Curt D and Christelle Hély A F
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Aix-Marseille University, CEREGE, UMR 6635, 13545 Aix en Provence, Cedex 4, France.
B IRD, UMR AMAP, Laboratoire de Botanique et d’Ecologie Végétale Appliquées, Herbarium NOU, Centre IRD, BPA5, 98848 Nouméa, New Caledonia; IRD, UMR AMAP, 34398 Montpellier, France.
C CNRS, UMIFRE 21, French Institute of Pondicherry, Pondicherry, 605001 India.
D Irstea, UR EMAX Ecosystèmes Méditerranéens and Risques, 13182 Aix en Provence, Cedex 05, France.
E Present address: Institut Agronomique Néo-Calédonien (IAC), UMR AMAP, Laboratoire de Botanique et d’Ecologie Végétale Appliquées, Herbarium NOU, Centre IRD, BPA5, 98848 Nouméa, New Caledonia.
F Present address: Centre de Bio-Archéologie et Ecologie, UMR 5059, EPHE (Laboratoire PALECO), 34090 Montpellier, France.
G Corresponding author. Email: ibanez@iac.nc
Australian Journal of Botany 61(2) 128-138 https://doi.org/10.1071/BT12255
Submitted: 3 October 2012 Accepted: 1 February 2013 Published: 28 March 2013
Abstract
A direct consequence of deforestation and forest fragmentation in the tropics is the increased importance of boundaries between forest fragments and savannahs. These boundaries are critical zones for understanding the dynamics of savannahs and forests. In the present study, the spatio-temporal dynamics of a savannah–forest boundary in New Caledonia were inferred from the analyses of vegetation structure and composition along three transects. Remnant savannah trees (Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T.Blake) in the forest part of the transect indicated that the forest edge has shifted towards savannah. This margin-forest expansion hypothesis was reinforced by gradual changes from the forest edge to the forest core in species composition (e.g. increase in the frequency of forest-core species) and population structure (e.g. increase in forest tree-stem diameter). However, sharp changes at the forest edge (mainly the increased frequency of small forest trees) suggested that forest expansion has likely been stopped. This suggested that different phases may alternate in the dynamics of savannah–forest boundaries, including stable phases where the boundary does not move, and unstable phases where the boundary moves or expands towards savannah or forest. Variations in the fire regime as a result of the interactions among climate, fire use by humans and vegetation are likely to drive these dynamics.
Additional keywords: community ecology, ecotone, edge, fire, moving-window analysis.
References
Alencar AAC, Solorzano LA, Nepstad DC (2004) Modeling forest understory fires in an eastern Amazonian landscape. Ecological Applications 14, S139–S149.| Modeling forest understory fires in an eastern Amazonian landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Aubréville A (1966) Les lisières forêt-savane dans les régions tropicales. Adansonia 6, 175–187.
Aubréville A, Leroy J-F, MacKee HS, Morat P (1967–present) ‘Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et dépendances.’ (Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle: Paris)
Balch JK, Nepstad DC, Brando PM, Curran LM, Portela O, de Carvalho O, Lefebvre P (2008) Negative fire feedback in a transitional forest of southeastern Amazonia. Global Change Biology 14, 2276–2287.
| Negative fire feedback in a transitional forest of southeastern Amazonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Banfai DS, Bowman DMJS (2007) Drivers of rain-forest boundary dynamics in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia: a field assessment. Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, 73–86.
| Drivers of rain-forest boundary dynamics in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia: a field assessment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barlow J, Peres CA (2008) Fire-mediated dieback and compositional cascade in an Amazonian forest. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 363, 1787–1794.
| Fire-mediated dieback and compositional cascade in an Amazonian forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Biddulph J, Kellman M (1998) Fuels and fire at savanna–gallery forest boundaries in southeastern Venezuela. Journal of Tropical Ecology 14, 445–461.
| Fuels and fire at savanna–gallery forest boundaries in southeastern Venezuela.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boughton EA, Quintana-Ascencio PF, Menges ES, Boughton RK (2006) Association of ecotones with relative elevation and fire in an upland Florida landscape. Journal of Vegetation Science 17, 361–368.
| Association of ecotones with relative elevation and fire in an upland Florida landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowman DMJS, Walsh A, Milne DJ (2001) Forest expansion and grassland contraction within a Eucalyptus savanna matrix between 1941 and 1994 at Litchfield National Park in the Australian monsoon tropics. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10, 535–548.
| Forest expansion and grassland contraction within a Eucalyptus savanna matrix between 1941 and 1994 at Litchfield National Park in the Australian monsoon tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cadenasso ML, Pickett STA, Weathers KC, Jones CG (2003) A framework for a theory of ecological boundaries. Bioscience 53, 750–758.
| A framework for a theory of ecological boundaries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Carpenter RJ, Read J, Jaffre T (2003) Reproductive traits of tropical rain-forest trees in New Caledonia. Journal of Tropical Ecology 19, 351–365.
| Reproductive traits of tropical rain-forest trees in New Caledonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Choesin D, Boerner REJ (2002) Vegetation boundary detection: a comparison of two approaches applied to field data. Plant Ecology 158, 85–96.
| Vegetation boundary detection: a comparison of two approaches applied to field data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cochrane MA (2003) Fire science for rainforests. Nature 421, 913–919.
| Fire science for rainforests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhsVKgtb4%3D&md5=54f2ac967ae7ae6c27af3cabd10d7396CAS |
Cochrane MA, Laurance WF (2002) Fire as a large-scale edge effect in Amazonian forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology 18, 311–325.
| Fire as a large-scale edge effect in Amazonian forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cochrane MA, Alencar A, Schulze MD, Souza CM, Nepstad DC, Lefebvre P, Davidson EA (1999) Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamic of closed canopy tropical forests. Science 284, 1832–1835.
| Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamic of closed canopy tropical forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjvFSqsLw%3D&md5=1c93e364bfa467fd803ba1f690144d68CAS |
Condit R, Ashton PS, Baker P, Bunyavejchewin S, Gunatilleke S, Gunatilleke N, Hubbell SP, Foster RB, Itoh A, LaFrankie JV, Seng Lee H, Losos E, Manokaran N, Sukumar R, Yamakura T (2000) Spatial patterns in the distribution of tropical tree species. Science 288, 1414–1418.
| Spatial patterns in the distribution of tropical tree species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXjslGkt7s%3D&md5=9e83ef7a269bfa198a26d3d3274d8435CAS |
Cornelius JM, Reynolds JF (1991) On determining the statistical significance of discontinuities with ordered ecological data. Ecology 72, 2057–2070.
| On determining the statistical significance of discontinuities with ordered ecological data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Didham RK, Lawton JH (1999) Edge structure determines the magnitude of changes in microclimate and vegetation structure in tropical forest fragments. Biotropica 31, 17–30.
Enright NJ, Rigg L, Jaffre T (2001) Environmental controls on species composition along a (maquis) shrubland to forest gradient on ultramafics at Mont Do, New Caledonia. South African Journal of Science 97, 573–580.
Franklin J, Rey SJ (2007) Spatial patterns of tropical forest trees in western Polynesia suggest recruitment limitations during secondary. Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, 1–12.
| Spatial patterns of tropical forest trees in western Polynesia suggest recruitment limitations during secondary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Geiger EL, Gotsch SG, Damasco G, Haridasan M, Franco AC, Hoffmann WA (2011) Distinct roles of savanna and forest tree species in regeneration under fire suppression in a Brazilian savanna. Journal of Vegetation Science 22, 312–321.
| Distinct roles of savanna and forest tree species in regeneration under fire suppression in a Brazilian savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gignoux J, Lahoreau G, Julliard R, Barot S (2009) Establishment and early persistence of tree seedlings in an annually burned savanna. Journal of Ecology 97, 484–495.
| Establishment and early persistence of tree seedlings in an annually burned savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldammer JG (1999) Ecology: forests on fire. Science 284, 1782–1783.
| Ecology: forests on fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hennenberg KJ, Goetze D, Kouame L, Othmann B, Porembski S (2005a) Border and ecotone detection by vegetation composition along forest–savanna transcts in Ivory Coast. Journal of Vegetation Science 16, 301–310.
| Border and ecotone detection by vegetation composition along forest–savanna transcts in Ivory Coast.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hennenberg KJ, Goetze D, Minden V, Traoré D, Porembski S (2005b) Size-class distribution of Anogeissus leiocarpus (Combretaceae) along forest–savanna ecotones in northern Ivory Coast. Journal of Tropical Ecology 21, 273–281.
| Size-class distribution of Anogeissus leiocarpus (Combretaceae) along forest–savanna ecotones in northern Ivory Coast.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hennenberg KJ, Fischer F, Kouadio K, Goetze D, Orthmann B, Linsenmair KE, Jeltsch F, Porembski S (2006) Phytornass and fire occurrence along forest–savanna transects in the Comoe National Park, Ivory Coast. Journal of Tropical Ecology 22, 303–311.
| Phytornass and fire occurrence along forest–savanna transects in the Comoe National Park, Ivory Coast.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Higgins SI, Bond WJ, Trollope WSW (2000) Fire, resprouting and variability: a recipe for grass-tree coexistence in savanna. Journal of Ecology 88, 213–229.
| Fire, resprouting and variability: a recipe for grass-tree coexistence in savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hirota M, Holmgren M, Van Nes EH, Scheffer M (2011) Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions. Science 334, 232–235.
| Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXht1yktr7O&md5=bc95ba05344f5cdf627aeb841ba28da7CAS |
Hoffmann WA, Solbrig OT (2003) The role of topkill in the differential response of savanna woody species to fire. Forest Ecology and Management 180, 273–286.
| The role of topkill in the differential response of savanna woody species to fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hoffmann WA, Orthen B, Do Nascimento PKV (2003) Comparative fire ecology of tropical savanna and forest trees. Functional Ecology 17, 720–726.
| Comparative fire ecology of tropical savanna and forest trees.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hoffmann WA, Adasme R, Haridasan M, de Carvalho MT, Geiger EL, Pereira MAB, Gotsch SG, Franco AC (2009) Tree topkill, not mortality, governs the dynamics of savanna–forest boundaries under frequent fire in central Brazil. Ecology 90, 1326–1337.
| Tree topkill, not mortality, governs the dynamics of savanna–forest boundaries under frequent fire in central Brazil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hoffmann WA, Jaconis SY, McKinley KL, Geiger EL, Gotsch SG, Franco AC (2011) Fuels or microclimate? Understanding the drivers of fire feedbacks at savanna–forest boundaries. Austral Ecology 37, 634–643.
| Fuels or microclimate? Understanding the drivers of fire feedbacks at savanna–forest boundaries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hoffmann WA, Geiger EL, Gotsch SG, Rossatto DR, Silva LCR, Lau OL, Haridasan M, Franco AC (2012) Ecological thresholds at the savanna–forest boundary: how plant traits, resources and fire govern the distribution of tropical biomes. Ecology Letters 15, 759–768.
Hovestadt T, Yao P, Linsenmair KE (1999) Seed dispersal mechanisms and the vegetation of forest islands in a West African forest–savanna mosaic (Comoe National Park, Ivory Coast). Plant Ecology 144, 1–25.
| Seed dispersal mechanisms and the vegetation of forest islands in a West African forest–savanna mosaic (Comoe National Park, Ivory Coast).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hufkens K, Scheunders P, Ceulemans R (2009) Ecotones in vegetation ecology: methodologies and definitions revisited. Ecological Research 24, 977–986.
| Ecotones in vegetation ecology: methodologies and definitions revisited.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ibanez T (2012) Dynamique des forêts denses humides et des savanes en réponse aux incendies en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rainforest and savanna dynamics in response to fires in New Caledonia. PhD Thesis, Université Aix-Marseille, Aix en Provence, France.
Ibanez T, Hély C, Curt T, Gaucherel C (2012) Sharp transitions of microclimatic conditions between savanna and forest in New Caledonia: insights into vulnerability of forest edges to fire. Austral Ecology
| Sharp transitions of microclimatic conditions between savanna and forest in New Caledonia: insights into vulnerability of forest edges to fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ibanez T, Curt T, Hély C (2013a) Low tolerance of New Caledonian secondary forest species to savanna fires. Journal of Vegetation Science 24, 177–188.
| Low tolerance of New Caledonian secondary forest species to savanna fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ibanez T, Borgniet L, Mangeas M, Gaucherel C, Géraux H, Hély C (2013b) Rainforest and savanna landscape dynamics in New Caledonia: towards a mosaic of stable rainforest and savanna states? Austral Ecology 38, 33–45.
| Rainforest and savanna landscape dynamics in New Caledonia: towards a mosaic of stable rainforest and savanna states?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jaffré T (1993) Relation between ecological diversity and floristic diversity in New Caledonia. Biodiversity Letters 1, 82–91.
| Relation between ecological diversity and floristic diversity in New Caledonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jaffré T, Veillon JM (1995) Structural and floristic characteristics of a rain forest on schist in New Caledonia: a comparison with an ultramafic rain forest. Bulletin du Muséum National d’Histoire NaturelleSection B, Adansonia, 4è série 17, 201–226.
Jaffré T, Veillon JM, Rigault F, Dagostini G (1997) ‘Impact des feux de brousse sur la flore et les groupement végétaux de Nouvelle Calédonie.’ (ORSTOM: Nouméa, New Caledonia)
Jaffré T, Bouchet P, Veillon JM (1998) Threatened plants of New Caledonia: is the system of protected areas adequate? Biodiversity and Conservation 7, 109–135.
| Threatened plants of New Caledonia: is the system of protected areas adequate?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jaffré T, Rigault F, Dagostini G, Tinel-Fambart J, Wulff A, Munzinger J (2009) Input of the different vegetation units to the richness and endemicity of the New Caledonian flora. In ‘Pacific Science Intercongress’, 2009, Tahiti, France.
King J, Moutsinga J-B, Doufoulon G (1997) Conversion of anthropogenic savanna to production forest through fire-protection of the forest–savanna edge in Gabon, Central Africa. Forest Ecology and Management 94, 233–247.
| Conversion of anthropogenic savanna to production forest through fire-protection of the forest–savanna edge in Gabon, Central Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Laurance WF, Curran TJ (2008) Impacts of wind disturbance on fragmented tropical forests: a review and synthesis. Austral Ecology 33, 399–408.
| Impacts of wind disturbance on fragmented tropical forests: a review and synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lehmann CER, Archibald SA, Hoffmann WA, Bond WJ (2011) Deciphering the distribution of the savanna biome. New Phytologist 191, 197–209.
| Deciphering the distribution of the savanna biome.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Little JK, Prior LD, Williamson GJ, Williams SE, Bowman DMJS (2012) Fire weather risk differs across rain forest–savanna boundaries in the humid tropics of north-eastern Australia. Austral Ecology 37, 915–925.
| Fire weather risk differs across rain forest–savanna boundaries in the humid tropics of north-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ludwig JA, Cornelius JM (1987) Locating discontinuities along ecological gradients. Ecology 68, 448–450.
| Locating discontinuities along ecological gradients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Maharjan SK, Poorter L, Holmgren M, Bongers F, Wieringa JJ, Hawthorne WD (2011) Plant functional traits and the distribution of West African rain forest trees along the rainfall gradient. Biotropica 43, 552–561.
| Plant functional traits and the distribution of West African rain forest trees along the rainfall gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mayer AL, Khalyani AH (2011) Grass tumps trees with fire. Science 334, 188–189.
| Grass tumps trees with fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsVWnur%2FE&md5=e3a49bbcb863347759707c7a7f7d3d11CAS |
McCoy S, Jaffré T, Rigault F, Ash JE (1999) Fire and succession in the ultramafic maquis of New Caledonia. Journal of Biogeography 26, 579–594.
| Fire and succession in the ultramafic maquis of New Caledonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mittermeier RA, Robles Gil P, Hoffmann M, Pilgrim J, Brooks T, Mittermeier CG, Lamoureux J, da Fonseca GAB (2004) ‘Hotspots revisited.’ (Chicago University Press: Chicago, IL)
Morat P, Jaffre T, Tronchet F, Munzinger J, Pillon Y, Veillon JM, Chalopin M (2012) The taxonomic reference base ‘Florical’ and characteristics of the native vascular flora of New Caledonia. Adansonia, série 3 34, 179–221.
Müller SC, Overbeck GE, Pfadenhauer J, Pillar VD (2007) Plant functional types of woody species related to fire disturbance in forest–grassland ecotones. Plant Ecology 189, 1–14.
| Plant functional types of woody species related to fire disturbance in forest–grassland ecotones.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murphy BP, Bowman DMJS (2012) What controls the distribution of tropical forest and savanna? Ecology Letters 15, 748–758.
| What controls the distribution of tropical forest and savanna?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Myers N (1988) Threatened biotas: ‘hot spots’ in tropical forests. The Environmentalist 8, 187–208.
| Threatened biotas: ‘hot spots’ in tropical forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD38ngsFCrsQ%3D%3D&md5=72d42954e7aff4fceeefaf5700acd77eCAS |
Nepstad DC, Verissimo A, Alencar A, Nobre C, Lima E, Lefebvre P, Schlesinger P, Potter C, Moutinho P, Mendoza E, Cochrane M, Brooks V (1999) Large-scale impoverishment of Amazonian forests by logging and fire. Nature 398, 505–508.
| Large-scale impoverishment of Amazonian forests by logging and fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXisFGqtrw%3D&md5=2c2deb1f334beb72524d2d9109ffc92bCAS |
Pascal M, Richer de Forges BR, Le Guyader H, Simberloff D (2008) Mining and other threats to the New Caledonia biodiversity hotspot. Conservation Biology 22, 498–499.
| Mining and other threats to the New Caledonia biodiversity hotspot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pélissier R (1998) Tree spatial patterns in three contrasting plots of a southern Indian tropical moist evergreen forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 14, 1–16.
| Tree spatial patterns in three contrasting plots of a southern Indian tropical moist evergreen forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Puyravaud JP, Pascal JP, Dufour C (1994) Ecotone structure as an indicator of changing forest savanna boundaries (Linganamakki region, southern India). Journal of Biogeography 21, 581–593.
| Ecotone structure as an indicator of changing forest savanna boundaries (Linganamakki region, southern India).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
R Development Core Team (2009) ‘R: a language and environment for statistical computing.’ 2.9.2 edn. (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna)
Ratnam J, Bond WJ, Fensham RJ, Hoffmann WA, Archibald S, Lehmann CER, Anderson MT, Higgins SI, Sankaran M (2011) When is a ‘forest’ a savanna, and why does it matter? Global Ecology and Biogeography 20, 653–660.
| When is a ‘forest’ a savanna, and why does it matter?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ray D, Nepstad D, Moutinho P (2005) Micrometeorological and canopy controls of fire susceptibility in a forested Amazon landscape. Ecological Applications 15, 1664–1678.
| Micrometeorological and canopy controls of fire susceptibility in a forested Amazon landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ray D, Nepstad D, Brando P (2010) Predicting moisture dynamics of fine understory fuels in a moist tropical rainforest system: results of a pilot study undertaken to identify proxy variables useful for rating fire danger. New Phytologist 187, 720–732.
| Predicting moisture dynamics of fine understory fuels in a moist tropical rainforest system: results of a pilot study undertaken to identify proxy variables useful for rating fire danger.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rossatto DR, Hoffmann WA, Franco AC (2009) Differences in growth patterns between co-occurring forest and savanna trees affect the forest–savanna boundary. Functional Ecology 23, 689–698.
| Differences in growth patterns between co-occurring forest and savanna trees affect the forest–savanna boundary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Russell-Smith J, Stanton PJ, Whitehead PJ, Edwards AC (2004) Rain forest invasion of eucalypt-dominated woodland savanna, Iron Range, north-eastern Australia: I. Successional processes. Journal of Biogeography 31, 1305–1316.
| Rain forest invasion of eucalypt-dominated woodland savanna, Iron Range, north-eastern Australia: I. Successional processes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sarlin P (1954) ‘Bois et forêts de la Nouvelle-Calédonie.’ (Centre Technique Forestier Tropical: Nogent-sur-Marne, France)
Scheffer M, Carpenter SR (2003) Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18, 648–656.
| Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Seidler TG, Plotkin JB (2006) Seed dispersal and spatial pattern in tropical trees. PLoS Biology 4, e344
| Seed dispersal and spatial pattern in tropical trees.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Serbesoff-King K (2003) Melaleuca in Florida: a literature review on the taxonomy, distribution, biology, ecology, economic importance and control measures. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 41, 98–112.
Siegert F, Ruecker G, Hinrichs A, Hoffmann AA (2001) Increased damage from fires in logged forests during droughts caused by El Nino. Nature 414, 437–440.
| Increased damage from fires in logged forests during droughts caused by El Nino.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXovFams74%3D&md5=8049613629ca89cee8c1d85099ed06f9CAS |
Staver AC, Archibald S, Levin SA (2011) The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states. Science 334, 230–232.
| The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXht1yktr7N&md5=c621829c0f07eb8594ca1a0b7b6325f8CAS |
Stott P (2000) Combustion in tropical biomass fires: a critical review. Progress in Physical Geography 24, 355–377.
Strayer DL, Power ME, Fagan WF, Pickett STA, Belnap J (2003) A classification of ecological boundaries. Bioscience 53, 723–729.
| A classification of ecological boundaries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Swaine MD, Hawthorne WD, Orgle TK (1992) The effects of fire exclusion on savanna vegetation at Kpong, Ghana. Biotropica 24, 166–172.
| The effects of fire exclusion on savanna vegetation at Kpong, Ghana.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Veillon JM (1993) Protection of floristic diversity in New Caledonia. Biodiversity Letters 1, 88–91.
| Protection of floristic diversity in New Caledonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Virot R (1956) La végétation canaque. In ‘Mémoire du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle Série B’. (Paris: Editions du muséum)
Walker S, Wilson JB, Steel JB, Rapson GL, Smith B, King WM, Cottam YH (2003) Properties of ecotones: evidence from five ecotones objectively determined from a coastal vegetation gradient. Journal of Vegetation Science 14, 579–590.
| Properties of ecotones: evidence from five ecotones objectively determined from a coastal vegetation gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Warman L, Moles AT (2009) Alternative stable states in Australia’s Wet Tropics: a theoretical framework for the field data and a field-case for the theory. Landscape Ecology 24, 1–13.
| Alternative stable states in Australia’s Wet Tropics: a theoretical framework for the field data and a field-case for the theory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whelan RJ (1995) ‘The ecology of fire.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
