The tale of two deer: management of Père David’s deer and sika deer in anthropogenic landscape of eastern Asia
Zhigang Jiang A C , Koichi Kaji B and Xiaoge Ping A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
B Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan.
C Corresponding author. Email: jiangzg@ioz.ac.cn
Animal Production Science 56(6) 953-961 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN15292
Submitted: 8 June 2015 Accepted: 15 August 2015 Published: 4 March 2016
Abstract
Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) and sika deer (Cervus nippon) occupy two contrasting types of niches in eastern Asia: Père David’s deer is a swamp deer adapted to wetlands, while the sika deer mainly live in forested areas. Both Père David’s deer and sika deer have been hunted since the early days of the hunting and gathering civilisation; however, these two deer have undergone different population histories. As human society entered the era of agriculture civilisation, Père David’s deer gradually lost its habitats to farmlands, and the population was greatly reduced until, finally, it became extinct in the wild in 1900. Fortunately, after 30 years of restoration and introduction, more than 4000 Père David’s deer thrive in nature reserves, zoos and safari parks in China, and more than 500 Père David’s deer could be found in the wild in 2014. Populations of wild sika deer were reduced as well due to hunting and deforestation, and were restricted in the forest patches in the mountains in eastern Asia. Nevertheless, the sika deer in China and Japan have different fortunes. Sika deer in China did not escape the prevalent tragedy of domestication, in that wild sika deer was endangered or extirpated in its original habitats, while the farmed sika deer thrived since late 1950s. Sika deer populations in Japan also remained at low density in the mid-1950s due to over-hunting, including poaching. After one-quarter of a century of in situ protection, sika populations are still small in China and some populations were found to leave the nature reserve to areas with high human densities, while the wild sika deer in Japan have markedly increased in numbers and extended their geographic distribution during the past few decades. Accordingly, the management strategies in China and Japan were completely different. The Chinese government is seeking all the efforts on the conservation of sika deer, while the Japanese government is revising laws to harvest and to reduce sika deer population.
Additional keywords: captive breeding, dispersal, extinction, nature reserve, population management, reintroduction, tragedy of domestication.
References
Bai J, Zhang L, Zhong Z, Dong J (2012) Research progress on the development status of Chinese Elaphurus davidianus population. China Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine 39, 225–230. [In Chinese]Ballon J, Foose T (1996) Demographic and genetic management of captive populations. In ‘Wild mammals in captivity’. (Eds DG Kleiman, ME Allen, KV Thompson, S Lumpkin) pp. 263–283. (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL)
Beck B, Wemmer C (1983) ‘The biology and management of an extinct species: Père David’s deer’. (Noyes Publications: NJ)
Bedford (12th) Duke of (1951–52) Père David’s deer; the history of the Woburn herd. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 121, 327–333.
Cao K (1992) Selection of suitable area for re-introduction of wild Père David’s deer in China. In ‘Deer of China, biology and management’. (Eds N Ohtaishi, H Sheng) pp. 297–300. (Elservier Science: Amsterdam)
Cao K (2007) The origin of traditional Chinese medicine, Elaphurus davidianus. In ‘The international symposium on the 20th anniversary of milu returning home’. (Ed. J Xia) pp. 20–24. (Beijing Press: Beijing)
Cao K, Qiu L, Chen B, Niao B (1988) ‘Chinese milu.’ (Xuelin Press: Shanghai, China)
Chai S, Li X, Zhang L, Rao C (2007) Observation on clinical effect of milu’s pilose antler and milu’s antler on women’s irregular menstruation. In ‘The international symposium on the 20th anniversary of milu returning home’. (Ed. J Xia) pp. 66–68. (Beijing Press: Beijing)
Ding Y, Wang L, Xu A (2005) The management strategy of habitat in Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve. Chinese Wildlife 1, 43–44. [In Chinese with English summary]
Ding Y, Ren Y, Wen H, Li P, Gao D, Chang Q (2014) Research on recovery and conservation of wild Père David’s deer population in China. Chinese Journal of Wildlife 35, 228–233. [In Chinese with English summary]
Dong L, You W, Zhou Q, Weng D, Zhang S, Wang W (2009) Study on diet of Cervus nippon kopschi in Qingliangfeng Natural Reserve. Journal of Zhejiang Forestry Science and Technology 29, 41–46. [In Chinese with English summary]
Ebenhard T (1995) Conservation breeding as a tool for saving animal species from extinction. Trends in Evolution and Ecology 10, 438–443.
| Conservation breeding as a tool for saving animal species from extinction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3M7itFehsQ%3D%3D&md5=15350d3a9bdbfa76dbe881a37e6c6fb5CAS |
Fernandez E, Li Z, Zheng W, Ding Y, Sun D, Che Y (2014) Intraspecific host selection of père david’s deer by cattle egrets in dafeng, China. Behavioural Processes 105, 36–39.
| Intraspecific host selection of père david’s deer by cattle egrets in dafeng, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24607393PubMed |
Frankham R, Briscoe D (2002) ‘Introduction to conservation genetics.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Fu Y, Hu J, Guo Y, Zhu H, Liu W, Wang Y (2006a) Habitat use of sika deer in spring at Taohongling Natural Reserve. Chinese Journal of Zoology 41, 60–63. [In Chinese with English summary]
Fu Y, Jia X, Hu J, Guo Y, Zhu H, Liu W, Wang Y (2006b) Summer habitat selection by sika deer in the Taohongling Nature Reserve, Jiangxi Province. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 25, 863–865. [In Chinese with English Summary]
Fu Y, Hu J, Zhu H, Liu W, Wang Y (2008) Preliminary study on vocal communication behavior of south China sika deers. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 27, 266–268. [In Chinese with English summary]
Groves C, Grubb P (2011) ‘Ungulate taxonomy.’ (Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD)
Guo Y (2000) Distribution, numbers, and habitat of Sichuan sika deer (Cervus nippon sichuanicus). Acta Theriologica Sinica 20, 81–87. [In Chinese with English summary]
Guo Y (2001) Study on the food habits of Sichuan deer (Cervus nippon sichuanicus). Journal of Sichuan Teachers College 22, 112–119.
Guo Y (2002) Determination of sika deer’s food resources and loading capacity in Tiebu Nature Reserve Sichuan, China. Acta Theorologica Sinica 22, 254–263. [In Chinese with English summary]
Guo Y (2003) Daily activity rhythm and time budget of Sichuan sika deer. Acta Theriologica Sinica 23, 104–108. [In Chinese with English summary]
Guo Y, Zheng H (1992) Geographic history of sika deer in China. Journal of Sichuan Teachers College 13, 1–9.
Guo Y, Zheng H (2000) On the geological distribution, taxonomic status of species and evolutionary history of sika deer in China. Acta Theriologica Sinica 20, 168–179. [In Chinese with English summary]
Guo Y, Zheng H (2005) Life table and the rate of natural increase in Sichuan sika deer. Acta Theriologica Sinica 25, 150–155. [In Chinese with English summary]
Guo Y, Hu J, Luo D, Se K, Ren S, Zou H (1991) Study on the social behavior of Cervus nippon sichuanicus. Acta Theriologica Sinica 11, 165–170. [In Chinese with English summary]
He X (1994) Studies on geographic distribution and disappearance causes of sika deer, rhinoceroses and sarus crane in the history of Yunnan. Journal of Yunnan University 16, 294–298.
He Z, Yang D, Ma J, Li P, Jiang Z (2007) Winter habitat selection by milu in Shishou, Hubei. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 26, 764–768. [In Chinese with English summary]
Hofmann RR (2007) The milu (Elaphurus davidianus), a recently evolved Chinese ruminant species with a unique morphology pointing a specific ecological adaptation. In ‘The international symposium on the 20th anniversary of milu returning home’. (Ed. J Xia) pp. 119–122. (Beijing Press: Beijing)
Hu H, Jiang Z (2002) Experimental release of Père David’s deer in Dafeng Reserve, China. Oryx 36, 196–199.
| Experimental release of Père David’s deer in Dafeng Reserve, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huang X, Tu X, Wang Y, Song Y (2000) Current situation and protect countermeasures for Cervus nippon in Jiangxi Taohong Mountain Natural Reserve of Cervus nippon. Jiangxi Forestry and Science 4, 24–26. [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z (2007) ‘Biodiversity in the Taohongling sika deer National Nature Reserve’. (Tsehua University Press: Beijing) [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z, Li D (1999) Land cover change and the conservation of Père David’s deer and Przewalski’s gazelle. Chinese Journal of Natural Resource 14, 334–339. [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z, Feng Z, Yu C, Zhang L, Xia J, Ding Y, Lindsay N (2000a) Reintroduction and recovery of Père David’s deer in China. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28, 681–687. [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z, Liu B, Zeng Y, Han G, Hu H (2000b) Attracted by the same sex, or repelled by the opposite sex? Sexual segregation in Père David’s deer. Chinese Science Bulletin 45, 485–491.
| Attracted by the same sex, or repelled by the opposite sex? Sexual segregation in Père David’s deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z, Zhang L, Yang R, Xia J, Rao C, Ding Y, Shen H, Xu A, Yu C (2001) Population density dependent growth in Père David’s deer and its population development strategies in China. Acta Zoologica Sinica 47, 41–48. [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z, Li C, Zeng Y, Widemo F (2004) ‘Harem defending’ or ‘challenging’: alternative individual mating tactics in Père David’s deer under different time constraint. Acta Zoologica Sinica 50, 706–713. [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z, Li C, Zeng Y (2006) Mating system, mating tactics and effective population size in Père David’s deer. Acta Ecologica Sinica 26, 2255–2260. [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z, Xu X, Liu W, Li C, Li C, Lu X, Xiao J, Li Y, Tang S, Ping X, Li F, Luo Z, Fang H, Yu B, Zhang J, Chen Q, Gao Y, Wu J, Wu W, Wang L, Wu Y, Zhu H, Wang C, Dai J, Ying X, Wang J, Liu Z, Chen J, Li L, Chen D, Zhang X, Cui S, Li J, Yuang F, Zhang B, Zhu J, Gao H, Li H, Chen Y, Chen Y, Lin Z, Wang Y, Zhang C, Zhou Q (2012) Population status of south China sika deer in Taohongling National Nature Reserve. Chinese Journal of Wildlife 33, 305–308. [In Chinese with English summary]
Jiang Z, Ma Y, Wu Y, Wang Y, Zhou K, Feng Z, Liu S (2015) ‘China’s mammal diversity and geographic distribution’. (Sciecne Press: Beijing)
Jiao Y, Ge Y, Fang S (2008) Eight novel microsatellite markers from the Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus). Conservation Genetics 9, 771–773.
| Eight novel microsatellite markers from the Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXkvV2ksr8%3D&md5=201b9f0a9a76bbc78fb1935f5cce3de2CAS |
Jones M, Manton J (1983) History in captivity. In ‘The biology and management of an extinct species Père David’s deer’. (Eds B Beck, C Wemmer) pp. 133–186. (Noyes Publications: NJ)
Kaji K, Saitoh T, Uno H, Matsuda H, Yamamura K (2010) Adaptive management of sika deer populations in Hokkaido, Japan: theory and practice. Population Ecology 52, 373–387.
| Adaptive management of sika deer populations in Hokkaido, Japan: theory and practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lei Q (2007) Current situation and developing prospect of sika cultivation. Journal of Economic Animal 11, 61–62. [In Chinese with English summary]
Li Z (2013) Sex-Age related rumination behavior of Père David’s deer under constraints of feeding habitat and rainfall. PLoS One 8, e66261
| Sex-Age related rumination behavior of Père David’s deer under constraints of feeding habitat and rainfall.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhtVGqtLzF&md5=8d6c14dd19538d1734531b237700e819CAS | 23823072PubMed |
Li S, Xue L (2000) Varieties of farmed sika deer in China. Sichuan Animal & Veterinary Sciences 27, 39 [In Chinese]
Li W, Zhao X (1989) ‘China’s nature reserves.’ (Foreign Language Press: Beijing)
Li C, Jiang Z, Fang J, Jiang G, Ding Y, Shen H, Xu A (1999) Relationship between reproductive behavior and fecal steroid in milu (Elaphurus davidianus). Acta Theriologica Sinica 20, 88–100. [In Chinese with English summary]
Li C, Jiang Z, Jiang G, Fang J (2001) Seasonal changes of reproductive behavior and fecal steroid concentrations in Père David’s deer. Hormones and Behavior 40, 518–525.
| Seasonal changes of reproductive behavior and fecal steroid concentrations in Père David’s deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXoslGhur0%3D&md5=2ea230ef250e8cea700d2ad8fd2b1c18CAS | 11716581PubMed |
Li C, Jiang Z, Zeng Y, Yan C (2004) Relationship between serum testosterone, dominance and mating success in Père David’s deer stags. Ethology 110, 1–11.
Li C, Jiang Z, Tang S, Zeng Y (2007a) Evidence of effects of human disturbance on alert response in Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus). Zoo Biology 26, 461–470.
| Evidence of effects of human disturbance on alert response in Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXptl2ms7g%3D&md5=9c5f45749b49ba471e48c05666fd06eaCAS | 19360594PubMed |
Li C, Jiang Z, Tang S, Zeng Y (2007b) Influence of enclosure size and animal density on fecal cortisol concentration and aggression in Père David’s deer stags. General and Comparative Endocrinology 151, 202–209.
| Influence of enclosure size and animal density on fecal cortisol concentration and aggression in Père David’s deer stags.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjt1SlsLY%3D&md5=072de2136527e97a174a8f13a7abb0c9CAS | 17324429PubMed |
Li C, Jiang Z, Zeng Y, You Z (2007c) A note on environmental elements as essential prerequisites for behavioral expression: a case study of Père David’s deer. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 103, 174–180.
| A note on environmental elements as essential prerequisites for behavioral expression: a case study of Père David’s deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Li C, Yang X, Ding Y, Zhang L, Fang H, Tang S, Jiang Z (2011) Do Père David’s deer lose memories of their ancestral predators? PLoS One 6, e23623
| Do Père David’s deer lose memories of their ancestral predators?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtF2nsLvM&md5=6cf1ebead7d2c87ad47c461a65596f9bCAS | 21887286PubMed |
Li C, Ping X, Lu X, Liu W, Zhu H, Xu X, Jiang Z (2013) Current status of the critically endangered south China sika deer and its dispersal out of the protected area: effects of human activity and habitat alteration. Journal of Biodiversity & Endangered Species 1, 117
Li Z, Beauchamp G, Mooring M (2014) Relaxed selection for tick-defense grooming in Père David’s deer? Biological Conservation 178, 12–18.
| Relaxed selection for tick-defense grooming in Père David’s deer?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Li J, Li Y, Miao L, Liu T, Liang S (2014a) Population viability analysis for sika deer (Cervus nippon kopschi) in the Taohongling National Nature Reserve in Jiangxi Province, China. Jiangxi Science 32, 815–822. [In Chinese with English summary]
Li J, Li Y, Miao L, Xie G, Yuan F (2014b) Impact of logging upon the habitat selection of sika deer in winter in Taohongling National Nature Reserve, China. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 33, 938–942. [In Chinese with English summary]
Li J, Li Y, Miao L, Xie G, Yuan F (2014c) Habitat assessment of sika deer (Cervus nippon) in the Taohongling National Nature Reserve, Jiangxi Province, China. Acta Ecologica Sinica 34, 1274–1283. [In Chinese with English summary]
Liu J (2007) Food and habitat selection by sika deer (Cervus nippon kopschi) and habitat improvement in the Taohongling Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. PhD Thesis, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China. [In Chinese with English summary]
Liu Z, Wu J, Teng L (1999) Diurnal activity rhythm of semi-free sika deer during early summer. Journal of Northeast Forestry University 27, 53–56. [In Chinese with English summary]
Liu Z, Wu J, Teng L (2002) Time budget and behavior pattern of semi-free Cervus nippon in spring. Chinese Journal of Ecology 21, 29–32. [In Chinese with English summary]
Liu H, Yang G, Wei F, Li M, Hu J (2003) Sequence variability of the mitochondrial DNA control region and population genetic structure of sika deers (Cervus nippon) in China. Acta Zoologica Sinica 49, 53–60. [In Chinese with English summary]
Liu H, Shi Y, Hu J (2004) Daily rhythm and time budget of Sichuan sika deer (Cervus nippon sichuanicus) in spring. Acta Theriologica Sinica 24, 282–285. [In Chinese with English summary]
Liu J, Xue J, Wang L, Ding J, Ma J, Liu C, Rong Y (2011) Habitat degradation features of Père David’s deer Natural Reserve in Dafeng of Jiangsu Province, East China. Chinese Journal of Ecology 30, 1793–1798. [In Chinese with English summary]
Liu N, Jiang Z, Zhang L, Zhong Z, Ping X, Xu H, Li C (2015) Bioacoustic cues and their relations to dominance rank in Père David’s deer stags. Animal Production Science (In press).
Lü X, Wei F, Li M, Guang Y, Liu H (2006) Genetic diversity among Chinese sika deer (Cervus nippon) populations and relationships between Chinese and Japanese sika deer. Chinese Science Bulletin 51, 433–440.
| Genetic diversity among Chinese sika deer (Cervus nippon) populations and relationships between Chinese and Japanese sika deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | [In Chinese with English summary]
Lü S, Liu Y, Yang L, Yang Y, Liu W, Wei W (2008a) Primary research of sika deer maternal behaviour in different feeding conditions. Journal of Economic Animal 12, 1–5. [In Chinese with English summary]
Lü S, Yang Y, Liu Y, Yang L, Peng W, Wei W (2008b) Diurnal activity rhythm of house-hold sika deer during early summer. Acta Ecologiae Animalis Domastici 29, 77–82. [In Chinese with English summary]
Lü S, Liu Y, Yang Y, Wei W (2009) Correlation between behavior traits and microsatellite marker on sika deer. Journal of Northeast Forestry University 12, 62–65. [In Chinese with English summary]
Lü S, Yang Y, Wei W (2011) The association of BDNF gene polymorphisms with normal behavior traits in house-hold sika deer (Cervus nippon). Acta Ecologica Sinica 31, 4881–4888. [In Chinese with English summary]
Lü S, Yang Y, Wei W (2012) Research of activity rhythm under different feeding conditions with mature male sika deer. Journal of Northwest A&F University 40, 14–20.
Ma J, Zhang E, Zhang S, Weng D (2004) Preliminary analysis on the habitat use by sika deer in Qingliangfeng National Natural Reserve in autumn. Chinese Journal of Zoology 39, 35–39. [In Chinese with English summary]
Ma Z, Tian C, Jiang X, Wang Z, Wu B (2008) The reproductive hormone variation regularity of northeast female sika deer before and after estrus periods. Special Wild Economic Animal and Plant Research 3, 1–4. [In Chinese with English summary]
McCullough DR, Takatsuki S, Kaji K (2009) ‘Sika deer: biology and management of native and introduced populations.’ (Springer: Tokyo)
Ning J, Guo Y, Zheng H (2008) Vocalization behaviour of Sichuan sika deer (Cervur nippon sichuanicus) during rut. Acta Theriologiea Sinica 28, 187–193. [In Chinese with English summary]
Piao Z, Qiu B, Zhang X, He J, Zhang Y (1999) Current status and conservation of endangered animals in Changbaishang Nature Reserve. Changbaishan Nature Conservation 58–59, 1–12. [In Chinese]
Ping X, Li C, Jiang Z, Liu W, Zhu H (2011a) Interference competition and group size effect in sika deer (Cervus nippon) at salt licks. Acta Ethologica 14, 43–49.
| Interference competition and group size effect in sika deer (Cervus nippon) at salt licks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ping X, Li C, Jiang Z, Liu W, Zhu H (2011b) Sexual difference in seasonal patterns of salt lick use by south China sika deer Cervus nippon. Mammalian Biology 76, 196–200.
| Sexual difference in seasonal patterns of salt lick use by south China sika deer Cervus nippon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pulliam H (1988) Sources, sinks, and population regulation. American Naturalist 132, 652–661.
| Sources, sinks, and population regulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Qi W, Yue B, Ning J, Jiang X, Quan Q, Guo Y, Mi J, Zuo L, Xiong Y (2010) Behavior ethogram and PAE coding system of Cervus nippon sichuanicus. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 21, 442–451. [In Chinese with English summary]
Qi W, Jiang X, Yang C, Guo Y (2014) Reproductive behavior of Sichuan sika deer (Cervus nippon sichuanicus). Acta Ecologica Sinica 34, 6548–6559. [In Chinese with English summary]
Sheng H (1991) Sika deer. In ‘The deer in China’. (Ed. H Sheng) pp. 202–212. (East China Normal University Press: Shanghai, China) [In Chinese with English summary]
Sheng H, Ohtaishi N (1993) The status of deer in China. In ‘Deer of China: biology and management’. (Eds N Ohtashi, H Sheng) pp. 1–11. (Elsevier Science Publishers: Amsterdam)
Sheng G, Wu L, Gao Z, Bai L, Hou X, Lai X (2009) Faecal DNA extraction and phylogenic analysis of Pere David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) in Shishou, Hubei Province. Journal of Huazhong Normal University (Nat. Sci.) 43, 468–473.
Song Y, Liu Z (2005) Rare animal species: sika deer and its studies. Bulletin of Biology 40, 1–3. [In Chinese]
Song Y, Li P, Yang D, Wen H, Zhang Y, Jiang Z (2015a) Regulation of free-ranging milu population in Shishou, Hubei, China: a density-dependent decrease in birth rate. Biodiversity Science 23, 33–40.
| Regulation of free-ranging milu population in Shishou, Hubei, China: a density-dependent decrease in birth rate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | [In Chinese with English summary]
Song Y, Yang D, Zou S, Li P, Zhang H, Wen H, Jiang Z (2015b) Sex-biased dispersal in naturally re-wild milu in the Dongting Lake Region, China. Acta Ecologica Sinica 35, [In Chinese with English summary]
State Forestry Administration of PR China (2001) ‘National engineering construction plan for deer protection.’ (Chinese Forestry Press: Beijing)
Su J, Xue J, Ding Y (2003) A study on the David’ s deer population dynamics in Dafeng Nature Reserve area. Journal of Nanjing Forestry University 27, 44–46.
Wan Q, Zhang P, Ni X, Wu H, Chen Y, Kuang Y, Ge Y, Fang S (2011) A novel HURRAH protocol reveals high numbers of monomorphic MHC Class II loci and two asymmetric multi-locus haplotypes in the Père David’s deer. PLoS One 6, e14518
| A novel HURRAH protocol reveals high numbers of monomorphic MHC Class II loci and two asymmetric multi-locus haplotypes in the Père David’s deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXht1OhtL8%3D&md5=48c17e532c51cd53feae0deab004a562CAS | 21267075PubMed |
Wang M (2013) Preliminary studies on genetic diversity of the sika deer (Cervus nippon hortulorum) in northeast China. MSc Thesis, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China.
Wang Z, Boyd M (2007) Milu reintroduction project and reintroduction biology. In ‘The international symposium on the 20th anniversary of milu returning home’. (Ed. J Xia) pp. 105–107. (Beijing Press: Beijing)
Wang Y, Wang W (2011) Diet of Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) at Milu Park in Beijing, China. Chinese Journal of Wildlife 32, 65–68. [In Chinese with English summary]
Whitehead G (1993) ‘The encyclopaedia of deer.’ (Swan Hill Press: Shrewsbury, UK)
Wilson R (2000) An investigation into the phylogeography of sika deer (Cervus nippon) using microsatellite markers. MS Thesis, University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
Wu P, Zhang E (2001) The resource conservation and utilization of wild sika deer in China. Journal of Chinese Medicinal Materials 24, 552–554. [In Chinese with English summary]
Wu H, Wan Q, Fang S (2004) Two genetically distinct units of the Chinese sika deer (Cervus nippon): analyses of mitochondrial DNA variation. Biological Conservation 119, 183–190.
| Two genetically distinct units of the Chinese sika deer (Cervus nippon): analyses of mitochondrial DNA variation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wu H, Hu J, Fang S, Kong L, Jia F (2006) Genetic diversity and genetic structure of domestic sika deer in China. Journal of Zoology 41, 41–47.
Xu H, Lu H, Sheng H, Gu C (1998) Status and current distribution of south China sika deer. Chinese Biodiversity 6, 87–91. [In Chinese with English summary]
Xu J, Zhang Y, Yang D, Song Y, Wen H, Li P (2013) Behaviors of Pére David’s deer harem master during its rutting period in Shishou County of Hubei Province, China. Chinese Journal of Ecology 32, 1277–1282. [In Chinese with English summary]
Yang G (2007) We should restore milu antler’s medicinal value. In ‘The international symposium on the 20th anniversary of milu returning home’. (Ed. J Xia) pp. 72–75. (Beijing Press: Beijing)
Yang T (2014) The effect of living condition on social behaviors of male Cervus nippon. MSc Thesis, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, China.
Yang J, Ding T, Hu P (1990) Primary report of ecological studies in south China sika deer. Chinese Wildlife 55, 17–19. [In Chinese]
Yang D, Jiang Z, Cao T, Wen S, Zhao K, Gui X, Xu Y (2002a) Feasibility of reintroduction of Père David’s deer Elaphurus davidianus to the Dongting Lake drainage. Biodiversity Science 10, 369–375. [In Chinese with English summary]
Yang Y, Zhang S, Cheng A (2002b) Characteristics of habitats used by sika deer in winter and spring in south China. Journal of Northeast Forestry University 30, 57–60. [In Chinese with English summary]
Yang R, Zhang L, Tan B, Zhong Z (2003) Investigation on the status of Père David’s deer in China. Chinese Journal of Zoology 38, 76–81. [In Chinese with English summary]
Yang D, Jiang Z, Ma J, Hu H, Li P (2005) Endangerment and extinct of Père David’s deer and other mammals in the Dongting Lake region and its enlightenments for the reintroduction of Père David’s deer. Biodiversity Science 13, 451–461.
| Endangerment and extinct of Père David’s deer and other mammals in the Dongting Lake region and its enlightenments for the reintroduction of Père David’s deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | [In Chinese with English summary]
Yang D, Ma J, He Z, Li P, Wen H, Jiang Z (2007) Population dynamics of the Père David’ s deer Elaphurus davidianus. Acta Zoologica Sinica 53, 947–952. [In Chinese with English summary]
Yang C, Xiao Z, Guo Y, Xiong Y, Zhang X, Yue B (2012a) Alarm signals of the Sichuan sika deer Cervus nippon sichuanicus. Zoological Science 29, 423–427.
| Alarm signals of the Sichuan sika deer Cervus nippon sichuanicus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22775249PubMed | [In Chinese with English summary]
Yang C, Zhang X, Yue B, Guo Y, Qi W, Hao H (2012b) The vocal behavior of Cervus nippon sichuanicus during fawning and velvet-growing season. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 31, 10–16. [In Chinese with English summary]
Yang D, Li Z, Li P, Jiang Z (2013) Diurnal activity time budget of Père David’s deer in Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve’ China. Acta Ecologica Sinica 33, 1397–1404.
| Diurnal activity time budget of Père David’s deer in Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve’ China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | [In Chinese with English summary]
Yao Z, Xu X, Xu P (2010) The analysis of food plants of sika deer in Taohongling Nature Reserve, Jiangxi Province. In ‘The 9th national symposium on natural medicinal material resources proceedings and abstracts’. (Ed. China Society of Natural Resources) pp. 326–331. (China Society of Natural Resources: Guangzhou)
You W, Dong L, Yu J, Lu Q, Zhang S, Zhou Q (2007) Characteristics of food resources in winter for Cervus nippon kopschi in Qingliangfeng. Journal of Zhejiang Forestry Science and Technology 27, 30–33. [In Chinese with English summary]
Yu J, Lu Q, Liu C, Zhou Q, Zhang S (2006) Study on population quantity and distribution of Cervus nippon kopschi in Qingliangfeng National Nature Reserve. Journal of Zhejiang Forestry Science and Technology 26, 1–4. [In Chinese with English summary]
Zeng Y, Jiang Z, Li C (2007) Genetic variability in relocated Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) populations: implications to reintroduction program. Conservation Genetics 8, 1051–1059.
| Genetic variability in relocated Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) populations: implications to reintroduction program.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zeng Y, Li C, Zhang L, Zhong Z, Jiang Z (2013) No correlation between neonatal fitness and heterozygosity in a reintroduced population of Père David’s deer. Current Zoology 1, 59
Zhang L, Wu H, Zhong Z, Zhang S (2010) Microsatellite polymorphisms and population genetics structure of Elaphurus davidianus in Beijing Milu Park. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 29, 505–508. [In Chinese with English summary]
Zhang P, Kuang Y, Wu H, Li L, Ge Y, Wan Q, Fang S (2012) The père david’s deer MHC ClassIgenes show unexpected diversity patterns, with monomorphic classical genes but polymorphic nonclassical genes and pseudogenes. Journal of Experimental Zoology. Part B, Molecular and Developmental Evolution 318, 294–307.
| The père david’s deer MHC ClassIgenes show unexpected diversity patterns, with monomorphic classical genes but polymorphic nonclassical genes and pseudogenes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XpvFChurg%3D&md5=be79a34ddf4ba9011078bec6e406bb28CAS | 22821865PubMed |
Zhang Z, Huang J, Karim M, Zhao J, Dong H, Ai W, Li F, Zhang L, Wang R (2015) Zoonotic enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes in pere david’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) in henan, China. Experimental Parasitology 155, 46–48.
| Zoonotic enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes in pere david’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) in henan, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25982030PubMed |
Zhao D (1990) ‘Deer thremmatology.’ (Chinese Forestry Press: Beijing)
Zheng W, Beauchamp G, Jiang X, Li Z, Yang Q (2013) Determinants of vigilance in a reintroduced population of Pere David’s deer. Current Zoology 59, 265–270.
Zhou K (2007) Chinese milu’s prosperity, decline and protection. In ‘The international symposium on the 20th anniversary of milu returning home’. (Ed. J Xia) pp. 15–19. (Beijing Press: Beijing)
Zou S, Song Y, Yang D, Li P (2013) Winter bed-site microhabitat selection by Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) in Hubei Shishou Milu National Nature Reserve’ south–central China. Chinese Journal of Ecology 32, 899–904. [In Chinese with English summary]
