Simple versus diverse pastures: opportunities and challenges in dairy systems
Keith G. Pembleton A E , Katherine N. Tozer B , Grant R. Edwards C , Joe L. Jacobs D and Lydia R. Turner A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 3523, Burnie, Tas. 7320, Australia.
B AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, East Street, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
C Department Agricultural Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand.
D Department of Environment and Primary Industries, 78 Henna Street, Warrnambool, Vic. 3280, Australia.
E Corresponding author. Email: keith.pembleton@utas.edu.au
Animal Production Science 55(7) 893-901 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN14816
Submitted: 12 September 2014 Accepted: 4 February 2015 Published: 21 April 2015
Abstract
For Australian and New Zealand dairy farms, the primary source of home-grown feed comes from grazed perennial pastures. The high utilisation of perennial pasture is a key factor in the low cost of production of Australian and New Zealand dairy systems and, hence, in their ability to maintain international competiveness. The major pasture species used are perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.), normally grown in a simple binary mixture. As pasture production has been further driven by increasing use of nitrogen fertiliser and irrigation, farms are getting closer to their economic optimum level of pasture utilisation. Increasing inputs and intensification have also increased scrutiny on the environmental footprint of dairy production. Increasing the diversity of pasture species within dairy swards presents opportunities to further increase pasture utilisation through additional forage production, extending the growing season, improving forage nutritive characteristics and, ultimately, increasing milk production per cow and/or per hectare. Diverse pastures also present an opportunity to mitigate some of the environmental consequences associated with intensive pasture-based dairy systems. A consistent finding of experiments investigating diverse pastures is that their benefits are due to the attributes of the additional species, rather than increasing the number of species per se. Therefore, the species that are best suited for inclusion into dairy pastures will be situation specific. Furthermore, the presence of additional species will generally require modification to the management of dairy pastures, particularly around nitrogen fertiliser and grazing, to ensure that the additional species remain productive and persistent.
Additional keywords: forbs, herbs, mixtures, monocultures, niche exploitation.
References
ABARES (2014) ‘Australian farm survey results 2011–12 to 2013–14.’ (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences: Canberra)Bell LW, Hayes RC, Pembleton KG, Waters CM (2014) Opportunities and challenges in Australian grasslands: pathways to achieve future sustainability and productivity imperatives. Crop & Pasture Science 65, 489–507.
| Opportunities and challenges in Australian grasslands: pathways to achieve future sustainability and productivity imperatives.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Berger H, Machado CF, Agnusdei M, Cullen BR (2014) Use of a biophysical simulation model (DairyMod) to represent tall fescue pasture growth in Argentina. Grass and Forage Science 69, 441–453.
| Use of a biophysical simulation model (DairyMod) to represent tall fescue pasture growth in Argentina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Beukes PC, Gregorini P, Romero AJ, Woodward SL, Khaembah EN, Chapman DF, Nobilly F, Bryant RH, Edwards GR, Clark DA (2014) The potential of diverse pastures to reduce nitrogen leaching on New Zealand dairy farms. Animal Production Science 54, 1971–1979.
| The potential of diverse pastures to reduce nitrogen leaching on New Zealand dairy farms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bolland MDA, Guthridge IF (2007) Responses of intensively grazed dairy pastures to applications of fertilizer nitrogen in south-western Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47, 927–941.
Chapman DF, Tharmaraj J, Nie ZN (2008) Milk-production potential of different sward types in a temperate southern Australian environment. Grass and Forage Science 63, 221–233.
| Milk-production potential of different sward types in a temperate southern Australian environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chapman DF, Edwards GR, Stewart A, Waghorn G, McEvoy M, O’Donovan M (2014) Valuing forages for genetic selection: what traits should we focus on? In ‘Proceedings of the 2014 Australasian dairy science symposium’. (Ed. J Roche) pp. 189–205. (DairyNZ: Hamilton, New Zealand)
Christie KM, Rawnsley RP, Eckard RJ (2011) A whole farm systems analysis of greenhouse gas emissions of 60 Tasmanian dairy farms. Animal Feed Science and Technology 166–167, 653–662.
| A whole farm systems analysis of greenhouse gas emissions of 60 Tasmanian dairy farms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cullen BR, Eckard RJ, Callow MN, Johnson IR, Chapman DF, Rawnsley RP, Garcia SC, White T, Snow VO (2008) Simulating pasture growth rates in Australian and New Zealand grazing systems. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 59, 761–768.
| Simulating pasture growth rates in Australian and New Zealand grazing systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dairy Australia (2013) ‘Australian Dairy Industry in Focus 2013.’ (Dairy Australia Ltd: Melbourne)
DairyNZ (2014a) ‘NZ Dairy: a global business.’ (DairyNZ: Hamilton, New Zealand)
DairyNZ (2014b) ‘DairyNZ economic survey 2012–13.’ (DairyNZ: Hamilton, New Zealand)
de Klein CAM, Ledgard SF (2001) An analysis of environmental and economic implications of nil and restricted grazing systems designed to reduce nitrate leaching from New Zealand dairy farms. I. Nitrogen losses. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 44, 201–215.
| An analysis of environmental and economic implications of nil and restricted grazing systems designed to reduce nitrate leaching from New Zealand dairy farms. I. Nitrogen losses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dear BS, Sandral GA, Wilson BCD, Rodham CA, McCaskie P (2002) Productivity and persistence of Trifolium hirtum, T-michelianum, T-glanduliferum and Ornithopus sativus sown as monocultures or in mixtures with T-subterraneum in the south-eastern Australian wheat belt. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 42, 549–556.
| Productivity and persistence of Trifolium hirtum, T-michelianum, T-glanduliferum and Ornithopus sativus sown as monocultures or in mixtures with T-subterraneum in the south-eastern Australian wheat belt.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Di HJ, Cameron KC (2007) Nitrate leaching losses and pasture yields as affected by different rates of animal urine nitrogen returns and application of a nitrification inhibitor: a lysimeter study. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 79, 281–290.
| Nitrate leaching losses and pasture yields as affected by different rates of animal urine nitrogen returns and application of a nitrification inhibitor: a lysimeter study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtFSks7jN&md5=6bd46f5b9f62e3929ff80e89daddb239CAS |
Dillon PR, Roche JR, Shalloo L, Horan B (2005) Optimising the financial return from grazing in temperate pastures. In ‘Proceedings of a satellite workshop of the XXth international grassland congress’. (Ed. JJ Murphy) pp. 131–147. (Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, The Netherlands)
Doyle PT, Stockdale CR, Lawson AW, Cohen DC (2000Pastures for dairy production in Victoria.?tm) (Department of Natural Resources and Environment: Kyabram, Vic.))
Eckard RJ, White RE, Edis R, Smith A, Chapman DF (2004) Nitrate leaching from temperate perennial pastures grazed by dairy cows in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 55, 911–920.
| Nitrate leaching from temperate perennial pastures grazed by dairy cows in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXnvVKiurY%3D&md5=470f825be877ae8701d690b252d27eafCAS |
Fariña SR, Garcia SC, Fulkerson WJ (2011) A complementary forage system whole-farm study: forage utilisation and milk production. Animal Production Science 51, 460–470.
| A complementary forage system whole-farm study: forage utilisation and milk production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gitay H, Noble IR (1997) What are functional types and how should we seek them. In ‘Plant functional types: their relevance to ecosystem properties and global change’. (Eds TM Smith, HH Shugart, FI Woodward) pp. 3–19. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Greenwood SL, Totty VK, Edwards GR (2011) Milk fatty acid profile from dairy cows grazing a diverse pasture. In ‘Proceedings of the 8th international symposium on the nutrition of herbivores (ISNH8)’. p. 529. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Hall MB, Huntington GB (2008) Nutrient synchrony: sound in theory, elusive in practice. Journal of Animal Science 86, E287–E292.
| Nutrient synchrony: sound in theory, elusive in practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1c3lsVyqsQ%3D%3D&md5=b53773eaeb2be3595c854228e6450c18CAS | 17965333PubMed |
Harris SL, Clark DA (1996) Effect of high rates of nitrogen fertilizer on white clover growth, morphology, and nitrogen fixation activity in grazed dairy pasture in northern New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 39, 149–158.
| Effect of high rates of nitrogen fertilizer on white clover growth, morphology, and nitrogen fixation activity in grazed dairy pasture in northern New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hersom MJ (2008) Opportunities to enhance performance and efficiency through nutrient synchrony in forage-fed ruminants. Journal of Animal Science 86, E306–E317.
| Opportunities to enhance performance and efficiency through nutrient synchrony in forage-fed ruminants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1c3lsVyktQ%3D%3D&md5=668b8de250e72091b32b0f780800aaafCAS | 17940154PubMed |
Holmes CW (2007) The challenge for pasture-based dairying: learning from the unrecognised systems experts, good farmers. In ‘Proceedings of the 3rd Australasian dairy science symposium 2007: meeting the challenges for pasture-based dairying’. (Eds DF Chapman, DA Clark, KL Macmillan, DP Nation) pp. 11–34. (National Dairy Alliance: Melbourne)
Huston MA (1997) Hidden treatments in ecological experiments: re-evaluating the ecosystem function of biodiversity. Oecologia 110, 449–460.
| Hidden treatments in ecological experiments: re-evaluating the ecosystem function of biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jones TA, Carlson IT, Buxton DR (1988) Reed canarygrass binary mixtures with alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil in comparison to monocultures. Agronomy Journal 80, 49–55.
| Reed canarygrass binary mixtures with alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil in comparison to monocultures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kebreab E, France J, Beever DE, Castillo AR (2001) Nitrogen pollution by dairy cows and its mitigation by dietary manipulation. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 60, 275–285.
| Nitrogen pollution by dairy cows and its mitigation by dietary manipulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Labreveux M, Sanderson MA, Hall MH (2006) Forage chicory and plantain: nutritive value of herbage at variable grazing frequencies and intensities. Agronomy Journal 98, 231–237.
| Forage chicory and plantain: nutritive value of herbage at variable grazing frequencies and intensities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lee JM, Hemmingson NR, Minnee EMK, Clark CEF (2012) Chicory and plantain management strategies to increase herbage dry matter yield, nutritive value and plant survival. In ‘Proceedings of the 5th Australasian dairy science symposium’. (Ed. J Jacobs) pp. 393–395. (Department of Primary Industries Victoria: Melbourne)
Li FY, Snow VO, Holzworth DP (2011) Modelling the seasonal and geographical pattern of pasture production in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 331–352.
| Modelling the seasonal and geographical pattern of pasture production in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lockley P, Wu H (2008) Herbicide tolerance in pasture legumes and herbs. In ‘16th Australian weeds conference proceedings: weed management 2008 hot topics in the tropics’. (Eds RD van Klinken, VA Osten, FD Panetta, JC Scanlan) pp. 319–322. (Queensland Weeds Society: Cairns, Qld)
Mackinnon D, Oliver M, Ashton D (2010) ‘Australian dairy industry: technology and management practices, 2008–09.’ (ABARE-BRS: Canberra)
Malcolm BJ, Cameron KC, Di HJ, Edwards GR, Moir JL (2014) The effect of four different pasture species compositions on nitrate leaching losses under high N loading. Soil Use and Management 30, 58–68.
| The effect of four different pasture species compositions on nitrate leaching losses under high N loading.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKenzie FR, Jacobs JL, Kearney G (2003) Long-term effects of multiple applications of nitrogen fertilizer on grazed dryland perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in south-west Victoria. 3. Botanical composition, nutritive characteristics, mineral content, and nutrient selection Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 477–485.
| Long-term effects of multiple applications of nitrogen fertilizer on grazed dryland perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in south-west Victoria. 3. Botanical composition, nutritive characteristics, mineral content, and nutrient selectionCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mitchell G (1998) ‘Profitable pasture use: a key to cost-efficient dairying in South Australia.’ (Department of Primary Industries and Resources South Australia: Adelaide)
Monaghan RM, Hedley MJ, Di HJ, McDowelli RW, Cameron KC, Ledgard SF (2007) Nutrient management in New Zealand pastures recent developments and future issues. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 50, 181–201.
| Nutrient management in New Zealand pastures recent developments and future issues.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXptFGqtb8%3D&md5=88fcf7a5f0a3e49bb23ba62ff1318273CAS |
Mueller-Harvey I (2006) Unravelling the conundrum of tannins in animal nutrition and health. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 86, 2010–2037.
| Unravelling the conundrum of tannins in animal nutrition and health.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtFajsr%2FF&md5=dda8831689d74822b97547a761229f68CAS |
Muir SK, Ward GN, Jacobs JL (2014) Milk production and composition of mid-lactation cows consuming perennial ryegrass- and chicory-based diets. Journal of Dairy Science 97, 1005–1015.
| Milk production and composition of mid-lactation cows consuming perennial ryegrass- and chicory-based diets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhvV2gur3I&md5=6c0f9a84f4fce27599d057765c6dab06CAS | 24290818PubMed |
Nobilly F (2014) Production and composition of diverse and simple pastures under water stress. PhD Thesis, Lincoln University, New Zealand.
Nobilly F, Bryant RH, McKenzie BA, Edwards GR (2013) Productivity of rotationally grazed simple and diverse pasture mixtures under irrigation in Canterbury. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 75, 165–172.
Nossal K, Sheng Y (2010) Productivity growth: trends, drivers and opportunities for broadacre and dairy industries. Australian Commodities 17, 216–230.
Parker M, Kemp DR (1998) Farmer experience with chicory on the Central Tablelands and Slopes of NSW. In ‘Pastures to profit proceedings of the 13th Grasslands Society of NSW conference’. pp. 75–76. (The Grasslands Society of NSW: Orange, NSW)
Parsons AJ, Edwards GR, Newton PCD, Chapman DF, Caradus JR, Rasmussen S, Rowarth JS (2011) Past lessons and future prospects: plant breeding for yield and persistence in cool-temperate pastures. Grass and Forage Science 66, 153–172.
| Past lessons and future prospects: plant breeding for yield and persistence in cool-temperate pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pembleton KG, Rawnsley RP (2011) Optimising the establishment of fodder beet to maximise yields on Tasmanian dairy farms: Final report to DairyTas. Tasmanian Institute of Agricultural Research, Burnie.
Pembleton KG, Rawnsley RP, Donaghy DJ (2011) Yield and water-use efficiency of contrasting lucerne genotypes grown in a cool temperate environment. Crop & Pasture Science 62, 610–623.
| Yield and water-use efficiency of contrasting lucerne genotypes grown in a cool temperate environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Picasso VD, Brummer EC, Liebman M, Dixon PM, Wilsey BJ (2011) Diverse perennial crop mixtures sustain higher productivity over time based on ecological complementarity. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 26, 317–327.
| Diverse perennial crop mixtures sustain higher productivity over time based on ecological complementarity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rawnsley RP, Donaghy DJ, Stevens DR (2007) What is limiting production and consumption of perennial ryegrass in temperate dairy regions of Australia and New Zealand. In ‘Proceedings of the 3rd Australasian dairy science symposium 2007: meeting the challenges for pasture-based dairying’. (Eds DF Chapman, DA Clark, KL Macmillan, DP Nation) pp. 256–274. (National Dairy Alliance: Melbourne)
Rawnsley RP, Chapman DF, Jacobs JL, Garcia SC, Callow MN, Edwards GR, Pembleton KG (2013) Complementary forages: integration at a whole-farm level. Animal Production Science 53, 976–987.
| Complementary forages: integration at a whole-farm level.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rawnsley RP, Langworthy AD, Pembleton KG, Turner LR, Corkrey R, Donaghy D (2014) Quantifying the interactions between grazing interval, grazing intensity, and nitrogen on the yield and growth rate of dryland and irrigated perennial ryegrass. Crop & Pasture Science 65, 735–746.
| Quantifying the interactions between grazing interval, grazing intensity, and nitrogen on the yield and growth rate of dryland and irrigated perennial ryegrass.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sanderson MA, Labreveux M, Hall MH, Elwinger GF (2003) Forage yield and persistence of chicory and English plantain. Crop Science 43, 995–1000.
| Forage yield and persistence of chicory and English plantain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sanderson MA, Skinner RH, Barker DJ, Edwards GR, Tracy BF, Wedin DA (2004) Plant species diversity and management of temperate forage and grazing land ecosystems. Crop Science 44, 1132–1144.
| Plant species diversity and management of temperate forage and grazing land ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sanderson MA, Soder KJ, Muller LD, Klement KD, Skinner RH, Goslee SC (2005) Forage mixture productivity and botanical composition in pastures grazed by dairy cattle. Agronomy Journal 97, 1465–1471.
| Forage mixture productivity and botanical composition in pastures grazed by dairy cattle.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sanderson MA, Soder KJ, Brzezinski N, Taube F, Klement K, Muller LD, Wachendorf M (2006) Sward structure of simple and complex mixtures of temperate forages. Agronomy Journal 98, 238–244.
| Sward structure of simple and complex mixtures of temperate forages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sanderson MA, Goslee SC, Soder KJ, Skinner RH, Tracy BF, Deak A (2007) Plant species diversity, ecosystem function, and pasture management: a perspective. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 87, 479–487.
| Plant species diversity, ecosystem function, and pasture management: a perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Skinner RH, Gustine DL, Sanderson MA (2004) Growth, water relations, and nutritive value of pasture species mixtures under moisture stress. Crop Science 44, 1361–1369.
| Growth, water relations, and nutritive value of pasture species mixtures under moisture stress.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Skinner RH, Sanderson MA, Tracy BF, Dell CJ (2006) Above- and belowground productivity and soil carbon dynamics of pasture mixtures. Agronomy Journal 98, 320–326.
| Above- and belowground productivity and soil carbon dynamics of pasture mixtures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Snow VO, Smale PN, Dodd MB (2013) Process-based modelling to understand the impact of ryegrass diversity on production and leaching from grazed grass-clover dairy pastures. Crop & Pasture Science 64, 265–284.
| Process-based modelling to understand the impact of ryegrass diversity on production and leaching from grazed grass-clover dairy pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Soder KJ, Sanderson MA, Stack JL, Muller LD (2006) Intake and performance of lactating cows grazing diverse forage mixtures. Journal of Dairy Science 89, 2158–2167.
| Intake and performance of lactating cows grazing diverse forage mixtures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xlt1eqs7c%3D&md5=e21fe348aeb59f7599260f690fa2d817CAS | 16702282PubMed |
Soder KJ, Rook AJ, Sanderson MA, Goslee SC (2007) Interaction of plant species diversity on grazing behavior and performance of livestock grazing temperate region pastures. Crop Science 47, 416–425.
| Interaction of plant species diversity on grazing behavior and performance of livestock grazing temperate region pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Teixeira EI, Moot DJ, Mickelbart MV (2007) Seasonal patterns of root C and N reserves of lucerne crops (Medicago sativa L.) grown in a temperate climate were affected by defoliation regime. European Journal of Agronomy 26, 10–20.
| Seasonal patterns of root C and N reserves of lucerne crops (Medicago sativa L.) grown in a temperate climate were affected by defoliation regime.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xht1Kgu7rP&md5=bb0a1b2f1caf17c7fde324869f8df850CAS |
Tharmaraj J, Chapman DF, Nie ZN, Lane AP (2008) Herbage accumulation, botanical composition, and nutritive value of five pasture types for dairy production in southern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 59, 127–138.
Tharmaraj J, Chapman DF, Hill J, Jacobs JL, Cullen BR (2014) Increasing home-grown forage consumption and profit in non-irrigated dairy systems. 2. Forage harvested. Animal Production Science 54, 234–246.
| Increasing home-grown forage consumption and profit in non-irrigated dairy systems. 2. Forage harvested.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tilman D, Wedin D, Knops J (1996) Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems. Nature 379, 718–720.
| Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xht1OisL8%3D&md5=9d37acbf4eb6cfc6d6bf362d94337d4fCAS |
Tilman D, Reich PB, Knops J, Wedin D, Mielke T, Lehman C (2001) Diversity and productivity in a long-term grassland experiment. Science 294, 843–845.
| Diversity and productivity in a long-term grassland experiment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXotVChsb0%3D&md5=b065e0b137b42d20df692026b31af89fCAS | 11679667PubMed |
Totty VK, Greenwood SL, Bryant RH, Edwards GR (2013) Nitrogen partitioning and milk production of dairy cows grazing simple and diverse pastures. Journal of Dairy Science 96, 141–149.
| Nitrogen partitioning and milk production of dairy cows grazing simple and diverse pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhvV2rsb3M&md5=9523b7c8c0b9068fbf366ad918b69c03CAS | 23164232PubMed |
Tozer KN, Barker GM, Cameron CA, Loick N (2010) New Zealand dryland pastures: effects of sown pasture species diversity on the ingress of unsown species. In ‘Proceedings of the 17th Australasian weeds conference. New frontiers in New Zealand: together we can beat the weeds’. (Ed. SM Zydenbos) pp. 398–401. (New Zealand Plant Protection Society: Christchurch, New Zealand)
Tracy BF, Faulkner DB (2006) Pasture and cattle responses in rotationally stocked grazing systems sown with differing levels of species richness. Crop Science 46, 2062–2068.
| Pasture and cattle responses in rotationally stocked grazing systems sown with differing levels of species richness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turner LR, Donaghy DJ, Lane PA, Rawnsley RP (2006) Effect of defoliation management, based on leaf stage, on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), prairie grass (Bromus willdenowii Kunth.) and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) under dryland conditions. 1. Regrowth, tillering and water-soluble carbohydrate concentration. Grass and Forage Science 61, 164–174.
| Effect of defoliation management, based on leaf stage, on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), prairie grass (Bromus willdenowii Kunth.) and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) under dryland conditions. 1. Regrowth, tillering and water-soluble carbohydrate concentration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turner LR, Donaghy DJ, Pembleton KG, Rawnsley RP (2013) Effect of nitrogen fertilizer applications on botanical composition. In ‘Revitalising grasslands to sustain our communities: proceedings of the 22nd international grassland congress’. (Eds DL Michalk, GD Millar, WB Badgery, KM Broadfoot) pp. 1513–1514. (New South Wales Department of Primary Industries: Sydney)
Van Bysterveldt A (2005) Lincoln University dairy farm, now a cropping farm? In ‘South Island dairy event proceedings’. pp. 18–29. (Lincoln University: Lincoln, New Zealand)
Van Rossum MH, Bryant RH, Edwards GR (2013) Response of simple grass-white clover and multi-species pastures to gibberellic acid or nitrogen fertilizer in autumn. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 75, 145–150.
Wales WJ, Heard JW, Ho CKM, Leddin CM, Stockdale CR, Walker GP, Doyle PT (2006) Profitable feeding of dairy cows on irrigated dairy farms in northern Victoria. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, 743–752.
| Profitable feeding of dairy cows on irrigated dairy farms in northern Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weil RR (1988) Performance of orchardgrass, smooth bromegrass and ryegrass in binary mixtures with alfalfa. Agronomy Journal 80, 509–514.
| Performance of orchardgrass, smooth bromegrass and ryegrass in binary mixtures with alfalfa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woodward SL, Laboyrie PJ, Jansen EBL (2000) Lotus corniculatus and condensed tannins – effects on milk production by dairy cows. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 13, 521–525.
Woodward SL, Roach GC, Macdonald KA, Siemelink JC (2008) Forage mixed ration dairy farming – the pros and cons. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 70, 183–188.
Woodward SL, Waghorn GC, Bryant MA, Benton A (2012) Can diverse pasture mixtures reduce nitrogen losses? In ‘Proceedings of the 5th Australasian dairy science symposium’. (Ed. J Jacobs) pp. 463–464. (Department of Primary Industries Victoria: Melbourne)
Woodward SL, Waugh CD, Roach CG, Fynn D, Phillips J (2013) Are diverse species mixtures better pastures for dairy farming? Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 75, 79–84.
Yang JY, Seo J, Kim HJ, Seo S, Ha JK (2010) Nutrient synchrony: is it a suitable strategy to improve nitrogen utilization and animal performance? Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 23, 972–979.
| Nutrient synchrony: is it a suitable strategy to improve nitrogen utilization and animal performance?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
