Diet and impacts of non-native fallow deer (Dama dama) on pastoral properties during severe drought
Naomi E. Davis
A * , David M. Forsyth B and Andrew J. Bengsen B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.
B Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, 1447 Forest Road, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia.
Wildlife Research 50(9) 701-715 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR22106
Submitted: 18 June 2022 Accepted: 21 March 2023 Published: 31 July 2023
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
Context: There is concern about potential competition between non-native fallow deer (Dama dama) and livestock for food, particularly during times of low rainfall when pasture is scarce.
Aims: We aimed to estimate the extent to which a high-density fallow deer population (~37 deer per km2) competed with livestock for food during a severe drought on pastoral properties on the Liverpool Plains, New South Wales, Australia.
Methods: We collected rumen contents from 125 fallow deer shot from helicopters during control operations in June and August 2018, and used microhistology to quantify their diets. We then used the diet data to adjust published estimates of stock unit equivalence from farmed fallow deer. Fallow deer sex and age class abundances and stock unit equivalences were multiplied to estimate the grazing pressure of the fallow deer population pre- and post-control relative to recommended sheep and cattle stocking rates. Finally, we estimated density–impact relationships for fallow deer.
Key results: Fallow deer diet was dominated by monocots (primarily grasses), but some individuals consumed large amounts of dicots (commonly Eucalyptus). Fallow deer were grazers to intermediate mixed feeders. Fallow deer dry-sheep equivalents (DSEs, based on a 50-kg merino wether) varied from 1.01 (juveniles) to 1.85 (adult females and adult males). Assuming complete diet overlap, the pre-control fallow deer population was equivalent to approximately 60.3 DSEs per km2 and reduced the potential stocking rate of domestic livestock by 50.2%. Discounting the fallow deer DSEs by the amount of browse in the diet resulted in a pre-control population of 45.7 DSEs per km2. The helicopter-based shooting reduced the fallow deer population by 26%, increasing the stocking rate in natural pasture by 22.0% (complete overlap) or 13.8% (discounting for browse).
Conclusions: When food is limiting, fallow deer at high density can exert strong competitive pressure on livestock, reducing carrying capacity. Browsing, including on Eucalyptus, likely helped fallow deer to persist at high densities during the severe drought of 2018, when properties had destocked.
Implications: Helicopter-based shooting reduced the competitive effects of fallow deer on livestock in our study area to only a small extent, but more intensive shooting would have led to a greater reduction. The helicopter-based shooting of deer was received positively by landholders at a time of severe stress, suggesting that deer control in agricultural areas can have other important benefits.
Keywords: agricultural impacts, Australia, competition, culling, density–impact relationships, dry stock equivalents, DSE, helicopter-based shooting, invasive species, livestock, microhistological analysis, rumen.
References
Anthony, RG, and Smith, NS (1974). Comparison of rumen and fecal analysis to describe deer diets. Journal of Wildlife Management 38, 535–540.| Comparison of rumen and fecal analysis to describe deer diets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Apollonio, M, Focardi, S, Toso, S, and Nacci, L (1998). Habitat selection and group formation pattern of fallow deer Dama dama in a submediterranean environment. Ecography 21, 225–234.
| Habitat selection and group formation pattern of fallow deer Dama dama in a submediterranean environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barker, RD (1986). An investigation into the accuracy of herbivore diet analysis. Australian Wildlife Research 13, 559–568.
| An investigation into the accuracy of herbivore diet analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bengsen, AJ, Forsyth, DM, Pople, A, Brennan, M, Amos, M, Leeson, M, Cox, TE, Gray, B, Orgill, O, Hampton, JO, Crittle, T, and Haebich, K (2022a). Effectiveness and cost of helicopter-based shooting of deer. Wildlife Research , .
| Effectiveness and cost of helicopter-based shooting of deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bengsen, AJ, Forsyth, DM, Ramsey, DSL, Amos, M, Pople, AR, Brennan, M, Comte, S, and Crittle, T (2022b). Estimating deer density and abundance using spatial mark–resight models with camera trap data. Journal of Mammalogy 103, 711–722.
| Estimating deer density and abundance using spatial mark–resight models with camera trap data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bentley A (1998) ‘An Introduction to the Deer of Australia With Special Reference to Victoria.’ 3rd edn. (Australian Deer Research Foundation Ltd: Melbourne, Vic., Australia)
Bentley A (1995) Fallow deer. In ‘The Mammals of Australia’. (Ed. R Strahan) pp. 732–733. (Australian Museum: Reed New Holland, Sydney, NSW, Australia)
Bleier, N, Kovács, I, Schally, G, Szemethy, L, and Csányi, S (2017). Spatial and temporal characteristics of the damage caused by wild ungulates in maize (Zea mays L.) crops. International Journal of Pest Management 63, 92–100.
| Spatial and temporal characteristics of the damage caused by wild ungulates in maize (Zea mays L.) crops.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burt, ML, Borchers, DL, Jenkins, KJ, and Marques, TA (2014). Using mark–recapture distance sampling methods on line transect surveys. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 5, 1180–1191.
| Using mark–recapture distance sampling methods on line transect surveys.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chapman NG, Chapman DI (1997) ‘Fallow deer: their history, distribution and biology.’ (Coch-y-bonddu Books: Machynlleth, Wales)
Chippendale, G (1962). Botanical examination of kangaroo stomach contents and cattle rumen contents. Australian Journal of Science 25, 21–22.
Clarke, KR (1993). Non-parametric multivariate analyses of changes in community structure. Australian Journal of Ecology 18, 117–143.
| Non-parametric multivariate analyses of changes in community structure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clarke KR, Warwick RM (2001) ‘Change in marine communities: an approach to statistical analysis and interpretation.’ 2nd edn. (PRIMER-E: Plymouth, UK)
Crittle T, Millynn B (2020) Pest animal mapping 2020 final report. NSW Department of Primary Industries, Orange, NSW, Australia.
Cunningham, CX, Perry, GLW, Bowman, DMJS, Forsyth, DM, Driessen, MM, Appleby, M, Brook, BW, Hocking, G, Buettel, JC, French, BJ, Hamer, R, Bryant, SL, Taylor, M, Gardiner, R, Proft, K, Scoleri, VP, Chiu-Werner, A, Travers, T, Thompson, L, Guy, T, and Johnson, CN (2022). Dynamics and predicted distribution of an irrupting ‘sleeper’ population: fallow deer in Tasmania. Biological Invasions 24, 1131–1147.
| Dynamics and predicted distribution of an irrupting ‘sleeper’ population: fallow deer in Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dawson T, Munn A (2007) How much do kangaroos of differing age and size eat relative to domestic stock?: implications for the arid rangelands. In ‘Animals of Arid Australia: out on their own?’. (Eds C Dickman, D Lunney, S Burgin) pp. 96–101. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Australia)
Denwood, MJ (2016). runjags: an R package providing interface utilities, model templates, parallel computing methods and additional distributions for MCMC models in JAGS. Journal of Statistical Software 71, 1–25.
| runjags: an R package providing interface utilities, model templates, parallel computing methods and additional distributions for MCMC models in JAGS.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Duncan AMR (1987) ‘A dietary study of two sympatric herbivores: fallow deer (Dama dama) and forester kangaroos (Macropus giganteus tasmaniensis).’ (University of Tasmania: Hobart, Tas., Australia)
Fleming, PJS, Croft, JD, and Nicol, HI (2002). The impact of rabbits on a grazing system in eastern New South Wales. 2. sheep production. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 42, 917–923.
| The impact of rabbits on a grazing system in eastern New South Wales. 2. sheep production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Focardi, S, Toso, S, and Pecchioli, E (1996). The population modelling of fallow deer and wild boar in a Mediterranean ecosystem. Forest Ecology and Management 88, 7–14.
| The population modelling of fallow deer and wild boar in a Mediterranean ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forsyth, DM, and Davis, NE (2011). Diets of non-native sambar deer in Australia estimated by macroscopic versus microhistological rumen analysis. Journal of Wildlife Management 75, 1488–1497.
| Diets of non-native sambar deer in Australia estimated by macroscopic versus microhistological rumen analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forsyth DM, Pople T, Page B, Moriarty A, Ramsey D, Parkes J, Wiebkin A, Lane C (Eds) (2017) 2016 National Wild Deer Management Workshop Proceedings, 17–18 November 2016, Adelaide, SA, Australia. (Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre: Canberra, ACT Australia)
Forsyth, DM, Comte, S, Davis, NE, Bengsen, AJ, Côté, SD, Hewitt, DG, Morellet, N, and Mysterud, A (2022). Methodology matters when estimating deer abundance: a global systematic review and recommendations for improvements. Journal of Wildlife Management 86, e22207.
| Methodology matters when estimating deer abundance: a global systematic review and recommendations for improvements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fraser KW, Sweetapple PJ (1993) ‘Assessing age and condition of deer from jawbones.’ (Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd: Christchurch, New Zealand)
Gentle, M, Speed, J, and Marshall, J (2015). Consumption of crops by feral pigs (Sus scrofa) in a fragmented agricultural landscape. Australian Mammalogy 37, 194–200.
| Consumption of crops by feral pigs (Sus scrofa) in a fragmented agricultural landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Graham P (2017) ‘PROGRAZETM: profitable, sustainable grazing.’ 9th edn. (NSW Department of Primary Industries: Orange, NSW, Australia). Available at https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/1363509/Prograze-manual-full.pdf [Accessed 16 December 2022]
Hampton, JO, Bengsen, AJ, Pople, A, Brennan, M, Leeson, M, and Forsyth, DM (2022). Animal welfare outcomes of helicopter-based shooting of deer in Australia. Wildlife Research 49, 264–273.
| Animal welfare outcomes of helicopter-based shooting of deer in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hansen, RM, Mugambi, MM, and Bauni, SM (1985). Diets and trophic ranking of ungulates of the Northern Serengeti. Journal of Wildlife Management 49, 823–829.
| Diets and trophic ranking of ungulates of the Northern Serengeti.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harrington, GN (1986). Herbivore diet in a semi-arid Eucalyptus populnea woodland. 1. Merino sheep. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 26, 413–421.
| Herbivore diet in a semi-arid Eucalyptus populnea woodland. 1. Merino sheep.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hofmann, RR (1989). Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system. Oecologia 78, 443–457.
| Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hofmann, RR, and Stewart, DRM (1972). Grazer or browser: a classification based on the stomach-structure and feeding habits of East African ruminants. Mammalia 36, 226–240.
| Grazer or browser: a classification based on the stomach-structure and feeding habits of East African ruminants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holechek, JL (1982). Sample preparation techniques for microhistological analysis. Journal of Range Management 35, 267–268.
| Sample preparation techniques for microhistological analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jackson, J (1977). The annual diet of the fallow deer (Dama dama) in the New Forest, Hampshire, as determined by rumen content analysis. Journal of Zoology 181, 465–473.
| The annual diet of the fallow deer (Dama dama) in the New Forest, Hampshire, as determined by rumen content analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnson, MK, Wofford, H, and Pearson, HA (1983). Digestion and fragmentation: influence on herbivore diet analysis. Journal of Wildlife Management 47, 877–879.
| Digestion and fragmentation: influence on herbivore diet analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kerridge, FJ, and Bullock, DJ (1991). Diet and dietary quality of red deer and fallow deer in late summer. Journal of Zoology 224, 333–337.
| Diet and dietary quality of red deer and fallow deer in late summer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kessler, WB, Kasworm, WF, and Bodie, WL (1981). Three methods compared for analysis of pronghorn diets. Journal of Wildlife Management 45, 612–619.
| Three methods compared for analysis of pronghorn diets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
King, AD, Pitman, AJ, Henley, BJ, Ukkola, AM, and Brown, JR (2020). The role of climate variability in Australian drought. Nature Climate Change 10, 177–179.
| The role of climate variability in Australian drought.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kleiber, M (1932). Body size and metabolism. Hilgardia 6, 315–353.
| Body size and metabolism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kuiters, AT, Bruinderink, GWTAG, and Lammertsma, DR (2005). Facilitative and competitive interactions between sympatric cattle, red deer and wild boar in Dutch woodland pastures. Acta Theriologica 50, 241–252.
| Facilitative and competitive interactions between sympatric cattle, red deer and wild boar in Dutch woodland pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Langbein J, Rutter SM (2003) Quantifying the damage wild deer cause to agricultural crops. In ‘Proceedings of the Future for Deer Conference’, 28–29 March 2003, Buxton, Derbyshire. English Nature Research Reports no. 548. (Ed. E Goldberg) pp. 32–39. (English Nature: Peterborough, UK)
Latham, ADM, Latham, MC, Norbury, GL, Forsyth, DM, and Warburton, B (2020). A review of the damage caused by invasive wild mammalian herbivores to primary production in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 47, 20–52.
| A review of the damage caused by invasive wild mammalian herbivores to primary production in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Leslie, DM, Vavra, M, Starkey, EE, and Slater, RC (1983). Correcting for differential digestibility in microhistological analyses involving common coastal forages of the Pacific northwest. Journal of Range Management 36, 730–732.
| Correcting for differential digestibility in microhistological analyses involving common coastal forages of the Pacific northwest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Long JL (2003) ‘Introduced mammals of the world: their history, distribution and influence.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic., Australia)
McLaren C (1997) Dry sheep equivalents for comparing different classes of livestock. Agriculture notes. Department of Primary Industries, Vic., Australia. Available at http://www.agronomy.com.au/download/DSEratings.pdf [Accessed 5 June 2021]
Moriarty, A (2004). The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia. Wildlife Research 31, 291–299.
| The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mulley RC (1989) Reproduction and performance of farmed fallow deer (Dama dama). PhD thesis, Department of Animal Health, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Mulley RC, Flesch JS (2000) Energy intake of farmed fallow deer of two genotypes during pregancy, lactation, and growth to slaughter weight. In ‘Proceedings of the 9th Congress of the Asian–Australasian Association of Animal Production Societies and 23rd Biennial Conference of the Australian Society of Animal Production’, 3–7 July 2000. Vol. 13C (Supplement), pp. 295–299. (University of NSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia)
Mulley RC, Flesch JS (2001) ‘Nutritional requirements for pregnant and lactating red and fallow deer.’ (Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, ACT, Australia)
Mulley RC (2007) Reproductive management of fallow deer. In ‘Current therapy in large animal theriogenology’. (Eds RS Youngquist, WR Threlfall) pp. 952–965. (Elsevier: St Louis, MO, USA)
Mulley RC (2008) Fallow deer Dama dama. In ‘The Mammals of Australia’. (Eds S Van Dyk, R Strahan) pp. 770–772. (Reed New Holland: Sydney, NSW, Australia)
Munn, AJ, Skeers, P, Kalkman, L, McLeod, SR, and Dawson, TJ (2014). Water use and feeding patterns of the marsupial western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus melanops) grazing at the edge of its range in arid Australia, as compared with the dominant local livestock, the Merino sheep (Ovis aries). Mammalian Biology 79, 1–8.
| Water use and feeding patterns of the marsupial western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus melanops) grazing at the edge of its range in arid Australia, as compared with the dominant local livestock, the Merino sheep (Ovis aries).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Munn, AJ, Kalkman, L, Skeers, P, Roberts, JA, Bailey, J, and Dawson, TJ (2016). Field metabolic rate, movement distance, and grazing pressures by western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus melanops) and Merino sheep (Ovis aries) in semi-arid Australia. Mammalian Biology 81, 423–430.
| Field metabolic rate, movement distance, and grazing pressures by western grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus melanops) and Merino sheep (Ovis aries) in semi-arid Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Norbury, GL (1988). Microscopic analysis of herbivore diets – a problem and a solution. Australian Wildlife Research 15, 51–57.
| Microscopic analysis of herbivore diets – a problem and a solution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Norbury, GL, Pech, RP, Byrom, AE, and Innes, J (2015). Density-impact functions for terrestrial vertebrate pests and indigenous biota: guidelines for conservation managers. Biological Conservation 191, 409–420.
| Density-impact functions for terrestrial vertebrate pests and indigenous biota: guidelines for conservation managers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
NSW Department of Primary Industries (2015) Using DSEs and carrying capacities to compare sheep industries. Available at https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/budgets/livestock/sheep-gross-margins-october-2015/background/dse [Accessed 20 January 2020]
NSW Department of Primary Industries (2023) Pasture species and varieties. Available at https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/species-varieties [Accessed 16 June 2023]
NSW Office of Environment and Heritage (2017) The NSW State Vegetation Type Map: methodology for a regional-scale map of NSW plant community types. pp. 1–18. NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, Sydney, NSW, Australia. Available at https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/vegetation/nsw-state-vegetation-type-map-methodology-170134.pdf [Accessed 22 January 2021
Nugent G (1983) ‘Deer diet estimation by rumen or faecal analysis: an evaluation of available techniques. Forest Research Institute Bulletin No. 24.’ (Forest Research Institute: Rotorua, New Zealand)
Nugent, G (1990). Forage availability and the diet of fallow deer (Dama dama) in the Blue Mountains, Otago. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 13, 83–95.
Nugent G, Asher GW (2021) Family Cervidae: Dama dama. In ‘The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals’. (Eds CM King, DM Forsyth) pp. 447–527. (CSIRO: Melbourne, Vic., Australia)
Nugent G, Forsyth DM (2021) Family Cervidae: Cervus elaphus. In ‘The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals’. (Eds CM King, DM Forsyth) pp. 447–527. (CSIRO: Melbourne, Vic., Australia)
Nugent G, Forsyth DM, Smith-Flueck JA, Latham ADM (in press) Non-native deer: origins, status, impacts and management. In ‘Deer of the world: ecology, conservation and management’. (Eds M Melletti, S Focardi) pp. xx–xx. (Springer Nature)
Pahl, L (2019a). Macropods, feral goats, sheep and cattle: 1. Equivalency in how much they eat. The Rangeland Journal 41, 497–518.
| Macropods, feral goats, sheep and cattle: 1. Equivalency in how much they eat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pahl, L (2019b). Macropods, feral goats, sheep and cattle. 2. Equivalency in what and where they eat. The Rangeland Journal 41, 519–533.
| Macropods, feral goats, sheep and cattle. 2. Equivalency in what and where they eat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Philipps MJ (1985) Studies on fallow deer (Dama dama) in the Koetong pine plantations in north-eastern Victoria. Research Project Thesis. University of New England: Armidale, NSW, Australia.
Plummer M (2003) JAGS: a program for analysis of Bayesian graphical models using Gibbs sampling. In ‘Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Distributed Statistical Computing (DSC 2003)’, 20–22 March 2003, Vienna, Austria. (Eds K Hornik, F Leisch, A Zeileis) pp. 1–10. (Technische Universität Wien: Vienna, Austria)
Putman, RJ, and Moore, NP (1998). Impact of deer in lowland Britain on agriculture, forestry and conservation habitats. Mammal Review 28, 141–164.
| Impact of deer in lowland Britain on agriculture, forestry and conservation habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Putman, RJ, Culpin, S, and Thirgood, SJ (1993). Dietary differences between male and female fallow deer in sympatry and in allopatry. Journal of Zoology 229, 267–275.
| Dietary differences between male and female fallow deer in sympatry and in allopatry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Putman, R, Langbein, J, Green, P, and Watson, P (2011). Identifying threshold densities for wild deer in the UK above which negative impacts may occur. Mammal Review 41, 175–196.
| Identifying threshold densities for wild deer in the UK above which negative impacts may occur.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pyšek, P, and Richardson, DM (2010). Invasive species, environmental change and management, and health. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 35, 25–55.
| Invasive species, environmental change and management, and health.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
R Core Team (2020). ‘R: a language and environment for statistical computing.’ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria)
Rhoades DF, Gates RG (1976) Toward a general theory of plant antiherbivore chemistry. In ‘Biochemical interaction between plants and insects’. Recent advances in phytochemistry. (Eds JW Wallace, RL Mansell) pp. 168–213. (Plenum: New York, NY, USA)
Robbins, CT, Hanley, TA, Hagerman, AE, Hjeljord, O, Baker, DL, Schwartz, CC, and Mautz, WW (1987). Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in protein availability. Ecology 68, 98–107.
| Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in protein availability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sanon, HO, Kaboré-ZoungranaI, C, and Ledin, I (2007). Behaviour of goats, sheep and cattle and their selection of browse species on natural pasture in a Sahelian area. Small Ruminant Research 67, 64–74.
| Behaviour of goats, sheep and cattle and their selection of browse species on natural pasture in a Sahelian area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shipley, LA, Gross, JE, Spalinger, DE, Hobbs, NT, and Wunder, BA (1994). The scaling of intake rate in mammalian herbivores. American Naturalist 143, 1055–1082.
| The scaling of intake rate in mammalian herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith, RW, Statham, M, Norton, TW, Rawnsley, RP, Statham, HL, Gracie, AJ, and Donaghy, DJ (2012). Effects of wildlife grazing on the production, ground cover and plant species composition of an established perennial pasture in the Midlands region, Tasmania. Wildlife Research 39, 123–136.
| Effects of wildlife grazing on the production, ground cover and plant species composition of an established perennial pasture in the Midlands region, Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Spitzer, R, Felton, A, Landman, M, Singh, NJ, Widemo, F, and Cromsigt, JPGM (2020). Fifty years of European ungulate dietary studies: a synthesis. Oikos 129, 1668–1680.
| Fifty years of European ungulate dietary studies: a synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Squires, VR (1980). Chemical and botanical composition of the diets of oesophageally fistulated sheep, cattle and goats in a semi-arid Eucalyptus populnea woodland community. Australian Rangeland Journal 2, 94–103.
| Chemical and botanical composition of the diets of oesophageally fistulated sheep, cattle and goats in a semi-arid Eucalyptus populnea woodland community.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Standing Committee on Agriculture and Resource Management: Ruminants Subcommittee (1990) ‘Feeding standards for Australian livestock. Ruminants.’ (CSIRO: Melbourne, Vic., Australia)
Storr, GM (1961). Microscopic analysis of faeces, a technique for ascertaining the diet of herbivorous mammals. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences 14, 157–165.
| Microscopic analysis of faeces, a technique for ascertaining the diet of herbivorous mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thirgood, SJ (1995). The effects of sex, season and habitat availability on patterns of habitat use by fallow deer (Dama dama). Journal of Zoology 235, 645–659.
| The effects of sex, season and habitat availability on patterns of habitat use by fallow deer (Dama dama).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Trdan, S, and Vidrih, M (2008). Quantifying the damage of red deer (Cervus elaphus) grazing on grassland production in southeastern Slovenia. European Journal of Wildlife Research 54, 138–141.
| Quantifying the damage of red deer (Cervus elaphus) grazing on grassland production in southeastern Slovenia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Turner, BW, and Alcock, D (2000). The dry sheep equivalent – redefining a ‘standard’. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 13, 215–251.
Watter, K, Baxter, GS, Pople, A, and Murray, PJ (2020). Dietary overlap between cattle and chital in the Queensland dry tropics. The Rangeland Journal 42, 221–225.
| Dietary overlap between cattle and chital in the Queensland dry tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weckerly, FW (2013). Conspecific body weight, food intake, and rumination time affect food processing and forage behavior. Journal of Mammalogy 94, 120–126.
| Conspecific body weight, food intake, and rumination time affect food processing and forage behavior.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson, AD, Leigh, JH, Hindley, NL, and Mulham, WE (1975). Comparison of the diets of goats and sheep on a Casuarina cristata–Heterodendrum oleifolium woodland community in western New South Wales. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 15, 45–53.
| Comparison of the diets of goats and sheep on a Casuarina cristata–Heterodendrum oleifolium woodland community in western New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
