Supplemental feeding of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and dietary requirements: a review
Brett J. Henry A * , Matthew Z. Brym A * , Cassandra Henry A * and Ronald J. Kendall
A B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A The Wildlife Toxicology Laboratory, Texas Tech University, PO Box 43290, Lubbock, Texas 79409-3290, USA.
B Corresponding author. Email: ron.kendall@ttu.edu
Wildlife Research 49(2) 89-99 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR20105
Submitted: 24 November 2020 Accepted: 18 June 2021 Published: 15 October 2021
Journal Compilation © CSIRO 2022 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) are a well known game bird that has been extensively studied and managed throughout its range for many decades. Despite this, bobwhites have continued a steady annual decline across the United States, irrespective of many well established conservation practices in place to mitigate this. Supplemental feeding is one such technique that is a widely used tool in bobwhite management, but the methods and results of the studies to investigate the effectiveness of this method are highly variable. The effectiveness of supplemental feeding practices is further hindered by the limited knowledge regarding the nutritional requirements of wild bobwhite because many of the guidelines that researchers follow are based on species of Galliformes that are primarily used for production. Here, we review supplemental feeding studies, nutritional requirements of bobwhite, and discuss future directions.
Keywords: bobwhite, Colinus virginianus, management practices, nutrition, supplemental feed.
References
Aboul-Ela, S., Wilson, H. R., and Harms, R. H. (1992). The effects of dietary protein level on the reproductive performance of bobwhite hens. Poultry Science 71, 1196–1200.| The effects of dietary protein level on the reproductive performance of bobwhite hens.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1641383PubMed |
Andrews, T. L., Harms, R. H., and Wilson, H. R. (1973). Protein requirement of the bobwhite chick. Poultry Science 52, 2199–2201.
| Protein requirement of the bobwhite chick.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 4799435PubMed |
Baldini, J. T., and Zarrow, M. X. (1952). Estrogen and serum calcium levels in the bobwhite quail. Poultry Science 31, 800–804.
| Estrogen and serum calcium levels in the bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baldini, J. T., Roberts, R. E., and Kirkpatrick, C. M. (1950). A study of the protein requirements of bobwhite quail reared in confinement in battery brooders to eight weeks of age. Poultry Science 29, 161–166.
| A study of the protein requirements of bobwhite quail reared in confinement in battery brooders to eight weeks of age.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baldini, J. T., Roberts, R. E., and Kirkpatrick, C. M. (1953). Low protein rations for the bobwhite quail. Poultry Science 32, 945–949.
| Low protein rations for the bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barnes, H. J. (1987). Diseases of quail. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice 17, 1109–1144.
| Diseases of quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 3310371PubMed |
Blake, J. P., and Hess, J. B. (2013). Performance of bobwhite quail fed different levels of protein and feed additive supplementation. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 22, 314–318.
| Performance of bobwhite quail fed different levels of protein and feed additive supplementation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boren, J. C., Lochmiller, R. L., Leslie, D. M., and Engle, D. M. (1995). Amino acid concentrations in seed of preferred forages of bobwhites. Journal of Range Management 48, 141–144.
| Amino acid concentrations in seed of preferred forages of bobwhites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brennan, L. A. (1991). How can we reverse the northern bobwhite quail decline? Wildlife Society Bulletin 19, 544–555.
Brennan, L. A. (Ed.) (2007). ‘Texas quails: ecology and management.’ (Texas A&M University Press: College Station, TX, USA.)
Brennan, L. A. (2015). Hunters are a fundamental component of northern bobwhite quail conservation. The International Journal of Environmental Studies 72, 830–838.
| Hunters are a fundamental component of northern bobwhite quail conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brennan, L. A., Hernández, F., and Bryant, F. C. (2007). Introduction. In ‘Texas quails: ecology and management’. (Ed. L. A. Brennan.) pp. 2–5. (Texas A&M University Press: College Station, TX, USA.)
Brown, S. M., and Hayslette, S. E. (2019). Effects of a Milo Diet, Mineral Supplementation, and Native Seed Use in Pen-Raised Northern Bobwhites. Journal of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 6, 107–110.
Buckley, B. R., Andes, A. K., Grisham, B. A., and Dabbert, C. B. (2015). Effects of broadcasting supplemental feed into roadside vegetation on home range and survival of female northern bobwhite. Wildlife Society Bulletin 39, 301–309.
| Effects of broadcasting supplemental feed into roadside vegetation on home range and survival of female northern bobwhite.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buckley, B. R., Andes, A. K., and Dabbert, C. B. (2018). Effects of food supplementation on the nesting dynamics of wild northern bobwhite. Wildlife Biology 2018, 1–8.
| Effects of food supplementation on the nesting dynamics of wild northern bobwhite.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burger, L. W., Miller, D. A., and Southwick, R. I. (1999). Economic impact of northern bobwhite hunting in the southeastern United States. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27, 1010–1018.
Butcher, G. (2007). Common birds in decline: a state of the birds report. Audubon Magazine. Available at https://www.audubon.org/sites/default/files/documents/sotb_cbid_magazine.pdf [verified 1 January 2020].
Cain, J. R., Beasom, S. L., Rowland, L. O., and Rowe, L. D. (1982). The effects of varying dietary phosphorus on breeding bobwhites. The Journal of Wildlife Management 46, 1061–1065.
| The effects of varying dietary phosphorus on breeding bobwhites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Collins, F. W. (1956). Artificial feeders: quail management techniques. Kentucky Happy Hunting Ground 12, 29.
Cook, M. E. (1991). Nutrition and the immune response of the domestic fowl. Critical Reviews in Poultry Biology 3, 167–189.
Dalloul, R. A., Lillehoj, H. S., Shellem, T. A., and Doerr, J. A. (2002). Effect of vitamin A deficiency on host intestinal immune response to Eimeria acervulina in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 81, 1509–1515.
| Effect of vitamin A deficiency on host intestinal immune response to Eimeria acervulina in broiler chickens.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 12412917PubMed |
DeMaso, S. J., Parry, E. S., Cox, S. A., and Peoples, A. D. (1998). Cause-specific mortality of northern bobwhites on an area with quail feeders in western Oklahoma. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 52, 359–366.
DeMaso, S. J., Townsend, I. I., Cox, S. A., Parry, E. S., and Lochmiller, R. S. (2002). The effect of quail feeders on northern bobwhite density in western Oklahoma. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 5, 241–244.
DeWitt, J. B., Nestler, R. B., and Derby, J. V. (1949). Calcium and phosphorus requirements of breeding bobwhite quail. The Journal of Nutrition 39, 567–577.
| Calcium and phosphorus requirements of breeding bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15398464PubMed |
Doerr, T. B., and Silvy, N. J. (2002). Effects of supplemental feeding on northern bobwhite populations in south Texas. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 5, 233–240.
Doerr, T. B., and Silvy, N. J. (2006). Effects of supplemental feeding on physiological condition of northern bobwhite in south Texas. The Journal of Wildlife Management 70, 517–521.
| Effects of supplemental feeding on physiological condition of northern bobwhite in south Texas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dumke, R. T. (1982). ‘Habitat development for bobwhite quail on private lands in Wisconsin.’ University of Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Technical Bulletin 128. (University of Wisconsin: Madison, WI, USA.)
Edminster, F. C. (1954). ‘American game birds of field and forest.’ (Charles Scribner’s Sons: New York, NY, USA.)
Ellis, J. A., Edwards, W. R., and Thomas, K. P. (1969). Responses of bobwhites to management in Illinois. The Journal of Wildlife Management 33, 749–762.
| Responses of bobwhites to management in Illinois.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frye, O. E. (1954). Studies of automatic quail feeders in Florida. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference 19, 298–315.
Giuliano, W. M., Lutz, R. S., and Patiño, R. (1996). Reproductive responses of adult female northern bobwhite and scaled quail to nutritional stress. The Journal of Wildlife Management 60, 302–309.
| Reproductive responses of adult female northern bobwhite and scaled quail to nutritional stress.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Godbois, I. A., Conner, L. M., and Warren, R. J. (2004). Space‐use patterns of bobcats relative to supplemental feeding of northern bobwhites. The Journal of Wildlife Management 68, 514–518.
| Space‐use patterns of bobcats relative to supplemental feeding of northern bobwhites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Guthery, F. S. (1997). A philosophy of habitat management for northern bobwhites. The Journal of Wildlife Management 61, 291–301.
| A philosophy of habitat management for northern bobwhites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Guthery, F. S. (2002). ‘The technology of bobwhite management: the theory behind the practice.’ (Iowa State Press: Ames, IA, USA.)
Guthery, F. S., Hiller, T. L., Puckett, W. H., Baker, R. A., Smith, S. G., and Rybak, A. R. (2004). Effects of feeders on dispersion and mortality of bobwhites. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32, 1248–1254.
| Effects of feeders on dispersion and mortality of bobwhites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haines, A. M., Hernández, F., Henke, S. E., and Bingham, R. L. (2004). Effects of road baiting on home range and survival of northern bobwhites in southern Texas. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32, 401–411.
| Effects of road baiting on home range and survival of northern bobwhites in southern Texas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harveson, L. A., Guthery, F. S., and Hellgren, E. C. (2004). Invertebrate consumption by breeding northern bobwhites and its relation to production. The Southwestern Naturalist 49, 472–477.
| Invertebrate consumption by breeding northern bobwhites and its relation to production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haugen, A. O. (1957). Quail and quail feeders. Alabama Conservation 29, 4–9.
Henson, K. D., Rollins, D., Lyons, E. K., and Ransom, D. (2012). Species visitation at free‐choice quail feeders in west Texas. Wildlife Society Bulletin 36, 735–740.
| Species visitation at free‐choice quail feeders in west Texas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hernández, F., and Guthery, F. S. (2012). ‘Beef, brush, and bobwhites: quail management in cattle country.’ (Texas A&M University Press: College Station, TX, USA.)
Hernández, F., and Peterson, M. J. (2007). Northern bobwhite ecology and life history. ‘Texas quails: ecology and management’. (Ed. L. A. Brennan.) pp. 40–64. (Texas A&M University Press: College Station, TX, USA.)
Hernández, F., Brennan, L. A., DeMaso, S. J., Sands, J. P., and Wester, D. B. (2013). On reversing the northern bobwhite population decline: 20 years later. Wildlife Society Bulletin 37, 177–188.
| On reversing the northern bobwhite population decline: 20 years later.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hiller, T. L., and Guthery, F. S. (2004). Correlates of fall–spring mass dynamics of northern bobwhites. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 116, 324–329.
Humphrey, B. D., and Klasing, K. C. (2004). Modulation of nutrient metabolism and homeostasis by the immune system. World’s Poultry Science Journal 60, 90–100.
| Modulation of nutrient metabolism and homeostasis by the immune system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnson, J. L., Rollins, D., and Reyna, K. S. (2012). What’s a quail worth? A longitudinal assessment of quail hunter demographics, attitudes, and spending habits in Texas. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 7, 294–299.
Klasing, K. C. (2007). Nutrition and the immune system. British Poultry Science 48, 525–537.
| Nutrition and the immune system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17952723PubMed |
Klasing, K. C., and Korver, D. R. (2019). Nutritional diseases. In ‘Diseases of poultry’. (Ed. D. E. Swayne.) pp. 1255–1285. (Wiley Blackwell: Hoboken, NJ, USA.)
Kogut, M. H., and Klasing, K. C. (2009). An immunologist’s perspective on nutrition, immunity, and infectious diseases: introduction and overview. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 18, 103–110.
| An immunologist’s perspective on nutrition, immunity, and infectious diseases: introduction and overview.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koutsos, E. A., and Klasing, K. C. (2001). Interactions between the immune system, nutrition and productivity of animals. In ‘Recent advances in animal nutrition’. (Ed. P. C. Garnsworthy and J. Wiseman.) pp. 173–190. (Nottingham University Press: UK.)
Lehmann, V. W. (1953). Bobwhite population fluctuations and vitamin A. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference 18, 199–246.
Leopold, A. (1933). ‘Game Management.’ 1946, reprint. (Charles Scribner’s Sons: New York, NY, USA.)
Madison, L. A., Robel, R. J., and Jones, D. P. (2000). Influence of food plots on northern bobwhite movements, habitat use, and home range. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 4, 36–41.
Madison, L. A., Robel, R. J., and Jones, D. P. (2002). Hunting mortality and overwinter survival of northern bobwhites relative to food plots in Kansas. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30, 1120–1127.
McGrath, D. J., Terhune, T. M., and Martin, J. A. (2017). Northern bobwhite habitat use in a food subsidized pyric landscape. The Journal of Wildlife Management 81, 919–927.
| Northern bobwhite habitat use in a food subsidized pyric landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McLaughlin, J. W., Wiley, D. S., Dabbert, C. B., and Terhune, T. M. (2019). Broadcast supplemental feeding and northern bobwhite demographics in Texas. The Journal of Wildlife Management 83, 52–63.
| Broadcast supplemental feeding and northern bobwhite demographics in Texas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miller, R. S. (2011). Foraging behavior of northern bobwhite in relation to resource availability. Thesis, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA.
Morris, G. A. I. L., Conner, L. M., and Oli, M. K. (2010). Use of supplemental northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) food by non-target species. Florida Field Naturalist 38, 99–105.
National Research Council (1994). ‘Nutrient requirements of poultry: 1994.’ 9th edn. (National Academy of Science: Washington, DC, USA.)
Nestler, R. B. (1946). Vitamin A, vital factor in the survival of bobwhites. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference 11, 176–192.
Nestler, R. B. (1949). Nutrition of bobwhite quail. The Journal of Wildlife Management 13, 342–358.
| Nutrition of bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nestler, R. B., and Bailey, W. W. (1943). Vitamin A deficiency in bobwhite quail. The Journal of Wildlife Management 7, 170–173.
| Vitamin A deficiency in bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nestler, R. B., Bailey, W. W., and McClure, H. E. (1942). Protein requirements of bobwhite quail chicks for survival, growth, and efficiency of feed utilization. The Journal of Wildlife Management 6, 185–193.
| Protein requirements of bobwhite quail chicks for survival, growth, and efficiency of feed utilization.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nestler, R. B., Bailey, W. W., Llewellyn, L. M., and Rensberger, M. J. (1944a). Winter protein requirements of bobwhite quail. The Journal of Wildlife Management 8, 218–222.
| Winter protein requirements of bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nestler, R. B., Bailey, W. W., Rensberger, M. J., and Benner, M. Y. (1944b). Protein requirements of breeding bobwhite quail. The Journal of Wildlife Management 8, 284–289.
| Protein requirements of breeding bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nestler, R. B., DeWitt, J. B., Derby, J. V., and Moschler, M. (1948). Calcium and phosphorus requirements of bobwhite quail chicks. The Journal of Wildlife Management 12, 32–36.
| Calcium and phosphorus requirements of bobwhite quail chicks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nice, M. M. (1910). Food of the bobwhite. Journal of Economic Entomology 3, 295–313.
| Food of the bobwhite.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Norris, L. C. (1935). Nutrition of game birds. New York State Conservation Department Annual Report , 331–338.
North American Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI) (2019). 2019 state of the birds: America’s birds are in crisis. Available at https://www.stateofthebirds.org/2019/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/2019-State-of-the-Birds.pdf [verified 1 January 2020].
Parsons, D. S., Whiting, R. M., Liu, X., and Dietz, D. R. (2000). Food plot use by juvenile northern bobwhites in east Texas. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 4, 71–74.
Peoples, A. D., Lochmiller, R. L., Boren, J. C., Leslie, D. M., and Engle, D. M. (1994a). Limitations of amino acids in diets of northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus). American Midland Naturalist 132, 104–116.
| Limitations of amino acids in diets of northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peoples, A. D., Lochmiller, R. L., Leslie, D. M., Boren, J. C., and Engle, D. M. (1994b). Essential amino acids in northern bobwhite foods. The Journal of Wildlife Management 58, 167–175.
| Essential amino acids in northern bobwhite foods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Purvis, J. (2011). ‘Small game harvest surveys, 1981–2010.’ (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department: Austin, TX, USA.)
Robel, R. J. (1969). Food habits, weight dynamics, and fat content of bobwhites in relation to food plantings in Kansas. The Journal of Wildlife Management 33, 237–249.
| Food habits, weight dynamics, and fat content of bobwhites in relation to food plantings in Kansas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robel, R. J. (1972). Body fat content of bobwhites in relation to food plantings in Kansas. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 1, 139–149.
Robel, R. J., and Kemp, K. E. (1997). Winter mortality of northern bobwhites: effects of food plots and weather. The Southwestern Naturalist 42, 59–67.
Robel, R. J., Case, R. M., Bisset, A. R., and Clement, T. M. (1974). Energetics of food plots in bobwhite management. The Journal of Wildlife Management 38, 653–664.
| Energetics of food plots in bobwhite management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rolland, V., Hostetlesouthr, J. A., Hines, T. C., Percival, H. F., and Oli, M. K. (2011). Factors influencing reproductive performance of northern bobwhite in South Florida. European Journal of Wildlife Research 57, 717–727.
| Factors influencing reproductive performance of northern bobwhite in South Florida.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rollins, D. (2002). Sustaining the ‘quail wave’ in the southern Great Plains. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 5, 48–56.
Rollins, D. (2007). Quails on the Rolling Plains. In ‘Texas quails: ecology and management’. (Ed. L. A. Brennan.) pp. 117–141. (Texas A&M University Press: College Station, TX, USA.)
Rosene, W. (1969). ‘The Bobwhite Quail.’ (Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, NJ, USA.)
Sauer, J. R., Pardieck, K. L., Ziolkowski, D. J., Smith, A. C., Hudson, M. A. R., Rodriguez, V., Berlanga, H., Niven, D. K., and Link, W. A. (2017). The first 50 years of the North American breeding bird survey. The Condor: Ornithological Applications 119, 576–593.
| The first 50 years of the North American breeding bird survey.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sauvant, D., Perez, J. M., and Tran, G. (Eds) (2004). ‘Tables of composition and nutritional value of feed materials: pigs, poultry, cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits, horses and fish.’ (Wageningen Academic Publishers: Paris, France.)
Schultz, V. (1948). Vitamin A as a survival factor of the bob-white quail (Colinus v. virginianus) in Ohio during the winter of 1946–47. The Journal of Wildlife Management 12, 251–263.
Scott, M. L., Holm, E. R., and Reynolds, R. E. (1958). A study of the phosphorus requirements of young bobwhite quail. Poultry Science 37, 1425–1428.
| A study of the phosphorus requirements of young bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Scott, M. L., Holm, E. R., and Reynolds, R. E. (1963). Studies on the protein and methionine requirements of young Bobwhite quail and young ringnecked pheasants. Poultry Science 42, 676–680.
| Studies on the protein and methionine requirements of young Bobwhite quail and young ringnecked pheasants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Scott, M. L., Holm, E. R., and Reynolds, R. E. (1964). Studies on the pantothenic acid and unidentified factor requirements of young ringnecked pheasants and bobwhite quail. Poultry Science 43, 1534–1539.
| Studies on the pantothenic acid and unidentified factor requirements of young ringnecked pheasants and bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Serafin, J. A. (1974). Studies on the riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and choline requirements of young Bobwhite quail. Poultry Science 53, 1522–1532.
| Studies on the riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and choline requirements of young Bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 4854495PubMed |
Serafin, J. A. (1977). Studies on the protein and sulfur amino acid requirements of young bobwhite quail. Poultry Science 56, 577–585.
| Studies on the protein and sulfur amino acid requirements of young bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 564506PubMed |
Serafin, J. A. (1982). Influence of protein level and supplemental methionine in practical rations for young endangered masked bobwhite quail. Poultry Science 61, 988–990.
| Influence of protein level and supplemental methionine in practical rations for young endangered masked bobwhite quail.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 7201640PubMed |
Singh, A., Hines, T. C., Hostetler, J. A., Percival, H. F., and Oli, M. K. (2011). Patterns of space and habitat use by northern bobwhites in South Florida, USA. European Journal of Wildlife Research 57, 15–26.
| Patterns of space and habitat use by northern bobwhites in South Florida, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sisson, D. C., Stribling, H. L., and Speake, D. W. (2000). Effects of supplemental feeding on home range size and survival of northern bobwhites in South Georgia. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 4, 128–131.
Stoddard, H. L. (1931). ‘The bobwhite quail: its habits, preservation and increase.’ (Charles Scribner’s Sons: New York, NY, USA.)
Stribling, H. L., and Sisson, D. C. (2009). Hunting success on Albany, Georgia plantations: the Albany Quail Project’s modern quail management strategy. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 6, 338–347.
Swayne, D. E. (2019). ‘Diseases of poultry.’ 14th edn. (Wiley Blackwell: Hoboken, NJ, USA.)
Townsend, D. E., Lochmiller, R. L., DeMaso, S. J., Leslie, D. M., Peoples, A. D., Cox, S. A., and Parry, E. S. (1999). Using supplemental food and its influence on survival of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). Wildlife Society Bulletin 27, 1074–1081.
Tri, A. N., Hernandez, F., Hewitt, D. G., Kuvlesky, W. P., and Brennan, L. A. (2012). Effects of Carbohydrate-Based and Protein–Carbohydrate Rations on Wild Bobwhite Nesting and Harvest Demographics. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 7, 101–106.
Tri, A. N., Brennan, L. A., Hernández, F., Kuvlesky, W. P., and Hewitt, D. G. (2014). Home ranges of breeding northern bobwhite hens in south Texas with access to supplemental feed. Bulletin of the Texas Ornithological Society 47, 11–16.
Turner, A. S., Conner, L. M., and Cooper, R. J. (2008). Supplemental feeding of northern bobwhite affects red‐tailed hawk spatial distribution. The Journal of Wildlife Management 72, 428–432.
| Supplemental feeding of northern bobwhite affects red‐tailed hawk spatial distribution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (2020). State Wildlife Action Plans. Available at https://www1.usgs.gov/csas/swap/index.html [verified 1 January 2020].
Wellendorf, S. D., Palmer, W. E., and Bostick, A. M. (2017). Effects of Supplemental Feeding on Breeding Season Home Ranges and Resource Selection of Northern Bobwhites. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 8, 187–195.
Whitelaw, R. E., Palmer, W. E., Wellendorf, S. D., and Carroll, J. P. (2009). Effect of supplemental feeding on winter diet and body mass of northern bobwhites. National Quail Symposium Proceedings 6, 282–289.
Wiley, D. S. S. (2017). Northern bobwhite reproduction in the Rolling Plains of Texas. M.Sc. Thesis, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA.
Williams, C. K., Guthery, F. S., Applegate, R. D., and Peterson, M. J. (2004). The northern bobwhite decline: scaling our management for the twenty-first century. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32, 861–869.
| The northern bobwhite decline: scaling our management for the twenty-first century.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson, H. R., Douglas, C. R., and Nesbeth, W. G. (1977). Feed consumption and protein efficiency by bobwhite quail in response to dietary energy levels. Poultry Science 56, 1127–1129.
| Feed consumption and protein efficiency by bobwhite quail in response to dietary energy levels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 605075PubMed |
Wilson, H. R., Holland, M. W., and Harms, R. H. (1972). Dietary calcium and phosphorus requirements for bobwhite chicks. The Journal of Wildlife Management 36, 965–968.
| Dietary calcium and phosphorus requirements for bobwhite chicks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wood, K. N., Guthery, F. S., and Koerth, N. E. (1986). Spring-summer nutrition and condition of northern bobwhites in south Texas. The Journal of Wildlife Management 50, 84–88.
| Spring-summer nutrition and condition of northern bobwhites in south Texas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
