Ecological effects of game management: does supplemental feeding affect herbivory pressure on native vegetation?
María Miranda A B C H , Ignacio Cristóbal A , Leticia Díaz A , Marisa Sicilia A , Eduarda Molina-Alcaide D , Jordi Bartolomé E , Yolanda Fierro F and Jorge Cassinello A G
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC (CSIC–UCLM–JCCM), Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain.
B Centre for African Ecology, School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa.
C Present address: Department of Economics, Sports Economics Observatory Foundation (FOED), Universidad de Oviedo, 33203 Oviedo, Spain.
D Estación Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC), Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain.
E Departament de Ciència Animal i del Aliments, Grup de Recerca en Remugants, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain.
F Yolfi Properties S.L., Abenójar, 13180 Ciudad Real, Spain.
G Present address: Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas (EEZA-CSIC), Carretera de Sacramento s/n, La Cañada de San Urbano, 04120 Almería, Spain.
H Corresponding author. Email: maria.miranda@wits.ac.za; maria.mirandaroves@gmail.com
Wildlife Research 42(4) 353-361 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR15025
Submitted: 4 February 2015 Accepted: 10 June 2015 Published: 24 August 2015
Abstract
Context: Supplemental feeding of large mammalian herbivores is a common management tool mainly aimed at promoting healthy populations and at increasing productivity and trophy sizes. Such management measure may indirectly affect herbivore effects on plant communities through altered foraging patterns. The quantification of the ecological effects of large herbivore management is important for designing holistic management and conservation programs.
Aims: Here we aimed at quantifying the ecological effects of supplemental feeding of Iberian red deer, Cervus elaphus hispanicus, on the composition of and on the browsing effects on Mediterranean woody plant community.
Methods: An experiment was set up in a hunting rangeland located in central Spain, where female deer were kept in enclosures with either exclusive access to natural forages or with additional ad libitum access to a nutritionally rich concentrate. The experiment also included a control area where deer were absent.
Key results: We observed significant differences in browsing impacts among the supplemented, non-supplemented and control areas, and such effect varied for the different plant species. Plant species which nutritional content complemented that of fodder were more highly consumed, for instance, Erica spp., which digestible fibre content is higher and N content lower than that of provided fodder. The presence of deer and the concentrate supplied, instead, did not influence the relative abundances of shrub species.
Conclusions: Artificial supplemental feeding provided to ungulates led to increased browsing on plant species which nutritional composition complemented that of the supplement provided.
Implications: So as to alleviate herbivory impact on all shrubs, we suggest that composition of supplemental feeding should adjust both to the natural forage availability and quality and to ungulate requirements across seasons.
Additional keywords: herbivory, red deer, wildlife management.
References
Acevedo, P., Ruiz-Fons, F., Vicente, J., Reyes-García, A. R., Alzaga, V., and Gortázar, C. (2008). Estimating red deer abundance in a wide range of management situations in Mediterranean habitats. Journal of Zoology 276, 37–47.| Estimating red deer abundance in a wide range of management situations in Mediterranean habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Agencia Estatal de Meteorología (2010). ‘Valores Climatológicos Normales.’ (Ciudad Real.) Available at http://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos [Accessed 11 July 2015]
Allendorf, F. W., England, P. R., Luikart, G., Ritchie, P. A., and Ryman, N. (2008). Genetic effects of harvest on wild animal populations. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23, 327–337.
| Genetic effects of harvest on wild animal populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anderson, M. J. (2001). A new method for non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance. Austral Ecology 26, 32–46.
AOAC (2005). ‘Official Methods of Analysis.’ (Association of Official Analytical Chemists: Washington, DC.)
Arroyo, B., and Beja, P. (2002). Impact of hunting management practices on biodiversity. Report WP2 to REGHAB project. European Commission, Brussels. Available at http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/8260/1/WP2-repportf.PDF [Accessed 11 July 2015]
Baker, D. L., and Hobbs, N. T. (1985). Emergency feeding of mule deer during winter: tests of a supplemental ration. The Journal of Wildlife Management 46, 813–818.
Baraza, E., Zamora, R., and Hódar, J. A. (2010). Species-specific responses of tree samplings to herbivory in contrasting light environments: an experimental approach. Ecoscience 17, 156–165.
| Species-specific responses of tree samplings to herbivory in contrasting light environments: an experimental approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barnes, J. I., Schier, C., and van Rooy, G. (1999). Tourists’ willingness to pay for wildlife viewing and wildlife conservation in Namibia. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 29, 101–111.
Benjamini, Y., and Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B. Methodological 57, 289–300.
Bergman, M., Iason, G. R., and Hester, A. J. (2005). Feeding patterns by roe deer and rabbits on pine, willow and birch in relation to spatial arrangement. Oikos 109, 513–520.
| Feeding patterns by roe deer and rabbits on pine, willow and birch in relation to spatial arrangement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boutin, S. (1990). Food supplementation experiments with terrestrial vertebrates: patterns, problems, and the future. Canadian Journal of Zoology 68, 203–220.
| Food supplementation experiments with terrestrial vertebrates: patterns, problems, and the future.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Calenge, C., Maillard, D., Fournier, P., and Founque, C. (2004). Efficiency of spreading maize in the garrigues to reduce wild boar (Sus scrofa) damage to Mediterranean vineyards. European Journal of Wildlife Research 50, 112–120.
Cammell, S. B., and Osbourn, D. F. (1972). Factors influencing the total time spent chewing by sheep given diets containing long, dried forages. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 31, 63A.
| 1:STN:280:DyaE3s%2Fjt1WktA%3D%3D&md5=7c5b6088867075eaa355de171843cc9aCAS | 5083287PubMed |
Cassidy, L., Fynn, R., and Sethebe, B. (2013). Effects of restriction of wild herbivore movement on woody and herbaceous vegetation in the Okavango Delta Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 51, 513–527.
| Effects of restriction of wild herbivore movement on woody and herbaceous vegetation in the Okavango Delta Botswana.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ceacero, F., Landete-Castillejos, T., Olguín, A., Miranda, M., García, A. J., Martínez, A., Cassinello, J., Miguel, V., and Gallego, L. (2015). Avoiding toxic levels of essential minerals: a forgotten factor in deer diet preferences. PLoS One 10, e0115814.
| Avoiding toxic levels of essential minerals: a forgotten factor in deer diet preferences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25615596PubMed |
Chalupa, W., Clark, J., Opliger, P., and Lavker, R. (1970). Detoxification of ammonia in sheep fed soy protein or urea. The Journal of Nutrition 100, 170–176.
| 1:CAS:528:DyaE3cXpsl2jtQ%3D%3D&md5=5a9c7d79846f81816de8269d3cddbff5CAS | 4391850PubMed |
Cooper, S. M., Owens, M. K., Cooper, R. M., and Ginnett, T. F. (2006). Effect of supplemental feeding on spatial distribution and browse utilization by white-tailed deer in semi-arid rangeland. Journal of Arid Environments 66, 716–726.
| Effect of supplemental feeding on spatial distribution and browse utilization by white-tailed deer in semi-arid rangeland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente (2010). ‘Estadística de Caza 2005–2010. Tablas Resumen.’ Available at http://www.magrama.gob.es/es/biodiversidad/estadisticas/est_anual_caza.aspx [Accessed 11 July 2015]
Dryden, G. M. (2011). Quantitative nutrition of deer: energy, protein and water. Animal Production Science 51, 292–302.
| Quantitative nutrition of deer: energy, protein and water.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXktl2gt74%3D&md5=0e26c4707ad75bbdcd2b05a1e7a6faf1CAS |
Du Toit, J. T., and Cumming, D. H. M. (1999). Functional significance of ungulate diversity in African savannas and the ecological implications of the spread of pastoralism. Biodiversity and Conservation 8, 1643–1661.
| Functional significance of ungulate diversity in African savannas and the ecological implications of the spread of pastoralism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eberhardt, L. L. (1978). Transect methods for population studies. The Journal of Wildlife Management 42, 1–131.
| Transect methods for population studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Edenius, L., Bergman, M., Ericsson, G., and Danell, K. (2002). The role of moose as a disturbance factor in managed boreal forests. Silva Fennica 36, 57–67.
| The role of moose as a disturbance factor in managed boreal forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
FACE (The Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU) (2010). Annual report 2009–2010. FACE, Brussels.
Fernández, J. M., Croom, W. J.,, Tate, L. P.,, and Johnson, A. D. (1990). Subclinical ammonia toxicity in steers: effects on hepatic and portaldrained visceral flux of metabolites and regulatory hormones. Journal of Animal Science 68, 1726–1742.
| 2200775PubMed |
Fernández de Mera, I. G. (2007). Factores implicados en la respuesta inmunitaria en el ciervo ibérico. PhD Thesis. Universidad de Castilla-La-Mancha, Spain.
Fischer, A., Sandström, C., Delibes-Mateos, M., Arroyo, B., Tadie, D., Randall, D., Hailu, F., Lowassa, A., Msuha, M., Kerezi, V., Reljic, S., Linnell, J., and Majic, A. (2013). On the multifunctionality of hunting- an institutional analysis of eight cases from Europe and Africa. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 56, 531–552.
| On the multifunctionality of hunting- an institutional analysis of eight cases from Europe and Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Garrido, J. L. (2012). ‘La Caza. Sector Económico. Valoración por Subsectores.’ (FEDENCA–EEC: Madrid.)
Garrido, P., Lindqvist, S., and Kjellander, P. (2014). Natural forage composition decreases deer browsing on Picea abies around supplemental feeding sites. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 29, 234–242.
Gebert, C., and Verheyden-Tixier, H. (2001). Variations of diet composition of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in Europe. Mammal Review 31, 189–201.
| Variations of diet composition of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in Europe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Geisser, H., and Reyer, H. U. (2004). Efficacy of hunting, feeding, and fencing to reduce crop damage by wild boars. The Journal of Wildlife Management 68, 939–946.
| Efficacy of hunting, feeding, and fencing to reduce crop damage by wild boars.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gordon, I. J., and Prins, H. H. T. (Eds) (2008). ‘The Ecology of Browsing and Grazing. Ecological Studies. Vol. 195.’ (Springer: Berlin.)
Gordon, I. J., Hester, A. J., and Festa-Bianchet, M. (2004). The management of wild large herbivores to meet economic and environmental objectives. Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 1021–1031.
| The management of wild large herbivores to meet economic and environmental objectives.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gundersen, H., Andreassen, H. P., and Storaas, T. (2004). Supplemental feeding of migratory moose Alces alces: forest damage at two spatial scales. Wildlife Biology 10, 213–223.
Halofsky, J., and Ripple, W. (2008). Linkages between wolf presence and aspen recruitment in the Gallian elk winter range of southwestern Montana, USA. Forestry 81, 195–207.
| Linkages between wolf presence and aspen recruitment in the Gallian elk winter range of southwestern Montana, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hanley, T. A. (1978). Comparison of line-interception and quadrat estimation methods of determining shrub canopy coverage. Journal of Range Management 31, 60–62.
| Comparison of line-interception and quadrat estimation methods of determining shrub canopy coverage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hanley, T. A. (1982). The nutritional basis for food selection by ungulates. Journal of Range Management 35, 146–151.
| The nutritional basis for food selection by ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hayward, M. W., and Kerley, G. I. H. (2009). Fencing for conservation: restriction of evolutionary potential or a riposte to threatening processes? Biological Conservation 142, 1–13.
| Fencing for conservation: restriction of evolutionary potential or a riposte to threatening processes?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hofmann, R. R. (1989). Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system. Animal Behaviour 78, 443–457.
Husson, F., Josse, J., Le, S., and Mazet, J. (2014). ‘FactoMineR: Multivariate Exploratory Data Analysis and Data Mining with R. R Package Version 1.27.’ Available http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=FactoMineR [Accessed 11 July 2015]
Kowalczyk, R., Taberlet, P., Coissac, E., Valentini, A., Miquel, C., Kaminski, T., and Wojcik, J. M. (2011). Influence of management practises on large herbivore diet: case of European bison in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (Poland). Forest Ecology and Management 261, 821–828.
| Influence of management practises on large herbivore diet: case of European bison in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (Poland).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Landete-Castillejos, T., García, A., Gómez, J. A., and Gallego, L. (2003). Lactation under food constraints in Iberian red deer Cervus elaphus hispanicus. Wildlife Biology 9, 131–139.
Lazo, A., Soriguer, R. C., and Fandos, P. (1994). Habitat use and ranging behavior of a high density population of Spanish red deer in a fenced intensively managed area. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 40, 55–65.
| Habitat use and ranging behavior of a high density population of Spanish red deer in a fenced intensively managed area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Loibooki, M., Hofer, H., Campbell, K. L. I., and East, M. L. (2002). Bushmeat hunting by communities adjacent to the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: the importance of livestock ownership and alternative sources of protein and income. Environmental Conservation 29, 391–398.
| Bushmeat hunting by communities adjacent to the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: the importance of livestock ownership and alternative sources of protein and income.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Macaulay, L. T., Starrs, P. F., and Carranza, J. (2013). Hunting in managed oak woodlands: contrasts among similarities. In ‘Mediterranean Oak Woodland Working Landscapes. Landscape Series 16’. (Eds P. Campos, L. Huntsinger, J. L. Oviedo, P. F. Starrs, M. Diaz, R. B. Standiford and G. Montero.) pp. 311−350. (Springer Science and Bussiness Media: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.)
Mertens, D. R. (1997). Creating a system for meeting the fiber requirements of dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 80, 1463–1481.
| Creating a system for meeting the fiber requirements of dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXks1Ogs7k%3D&md5=664796b3cfd7205111861800ee5c8563CAS | 9241608PubMed |
Milner, J. M., van Beest, F. M., Schmidt, K. T., Brook, R. K., and Storaas, T. (2014). To feed or not to feed? Evidence of the intended and unintended effects of feeding wild ungulates. The Journal of Wildlife Management 78, 1322–1334.
| To feed or not to feed? Evidence of the intended and unintended effects of feeding wild ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miranda, M., Sicilia, M., Bartolomé, J., Molina-Alcaide, E., Gálvez-Bravo, L., and Cassinello, J. (2012). Contrasting feeding patterns of native red deer and two exotic ungulates in a Mediterranean ecosystem. Wildlife Research 39, 171–182.
| Contrasting feeding patterns of native red deer and two exotic ungulates in a Mediterranean ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moser, B., Schütz, M., and Hindenlang, K. E. (2006). Importance of alternative food resources for browsing by roe deer on deciduous trees: the role of food availability and species quality. Forest Ecology and Management 226, 248–255.
| Importance of alternative food resources for browsing by roe deer on deciduous trees: the role of food availability and species quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murden, S. B., and Risenhoover, K. L. (1993). Effects of habitat enrichment on patterns of diet selection. Ecological Applications 3, 497–505.
| Effects of habitat enrichment on patterns of diet selection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mysterud, A. (2010). Still walking on the wild side? Management actions as steps towards ‘semi-domestication’ of hunted ungulates. Journal of Applied Ecology 47, 920–925.
| Still walking on the wild side? Management actions as steps towards ‘semi-domestication’ of hunted ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oksanen, J., Blanchet, F. G., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., Minchin, P. R., O’Hara, R. B., Simpson, G. L., Solymos, P., Stevens, M. H. H., and Wagner, H. (2013). ‘vegan: Community Ecology Package. R Package Version 2.0-10.’ Available at http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan [Accessed 11 July 2015]
Ouellet, J. P., Crete, M., Maltais, J., Pelletier, C., and Huot, J. (2001). Emergency feeding of white-tailed deer: test of three feeds. The Journal of Wildlife Management 65, 129–136.
| Emergency feeding of white-tailed deer: test of three feeds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Packer, C., Kosmala, M., Cooley, H. S., Brink, H., Pintea, L., Garshelis, D., Purchase, G., Strauss, M., Swanson, A., Balme, G., Huter, L., and Nowell, K. (2009). Sport hunting, predator control and conservation of large carnivores. PLoS One 4, e5941.
| Sport hunting, predator control and conservation of large carnivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19536277PubMed |
Parker, D. S., Lomax, M. A., Seal, C. J., and Wilton, J. C. (1995). Metabolic implications of ammonia production in the ruminant. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 54, 549–563.
| Metabolic implications of ammonia production in the ruminant.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXptlalt70%3D&md5=d3fd0e464571b694581bca3478ac636eCAS | 8524901PubMed |
Parker, K. L., Barboza, P. S., and Gillingham, M. P. (2009). Nutrition integrates environmental responses of ungulates. Functional Ecology 23, 57–69.
| Nutrition integrates environmental responses of ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peek, J. M., Schmidt, K. T., Dorrance, M. J., and Smith, B. L. (2002). Supplemental feeding and farming of elk. In ‘Elk of North America: Ecology and Management’. (Eds D. E. Toweill and J. W. Thomas.) pp. 614−647. (Smithsonian Institute Press: Washington, DC.)
Perea, R., Girardello, M., and San Miguel, A. (2014). Big game or big loss? High deer densities are threatening woody plant diversity and vegetation dynamics. Biodiversity and Conservation 23, 1303–1318.
| Big game or big loss? High deer densities are threatening woody plant diversity and vegetation dynamics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pinheiro, J. C., and Bates, D. M. (Eds) (2000). ‘Mixed-Effects Models in S and S-PLUS.’ (Springer: New York.)
Pinheiro, J., Bates, D., DebRoy, S., Sarkar, D., and R Core Team (2014). ‘nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models. R Package Version 3.1-117.’ Available at http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=nlm [Accessed 11 July 2015]
Provenza, F. D. (1995). Postingestive feedback as an elementary determinant of food preference and intake in ruminants. Journal of Range Management 48, 2–17.
| Postingestive feedback as an elementary determinant of food preference and intake in ruminants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Putman, R. J., and Staines, B. W. (2004). Supplementary winter feeding of wild red deer Cervus elaphus in Europe and North America: justifications, feeding practice and effectiveness. Mammal Review 34, 285–306.
| Supplementary winter feeding of wild red deer Cervus elaphus in Europe and North America: justifications, feeding practice and effectiveness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
R Core Team (2014). ‘R: a Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.’ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna.) Available at http://www.R-project.org/ [Accessed 11 July 2015]
Reynolds, J. C., and Tapper, S. C. (1996). Control of mammalian predators in game management and conservation. Mammal Review 26, 127–155.
| Control of mammalian predators in game management and conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ripple, W., and Beschta, R. L. (2008). Trophic cascades involving cougar, mule deer, and black oaks in Yosemite National park. Biological Conservation 141, 1249–1256.
| Trophic cascades involving cougar, mule deer, and black oaks in Yosemite National park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rodríguez-Hidalgo, P., Gortázar, C., Tortosa, F. S., Rodríguez-Vigal, C., Fierro, Y., and Vicente, J. (2010). Effects of density, climate, and supplementary forage on body mass and pregnancy rates of female red deer in Spain. Oecologia 164, 389–398.
| Effects of density, climate, and supplementary forage on body mass and pregnancy rates of female red deer in Spain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20508950PubMed |
Santos, J. P. V., Fernández de Mera, I. G., Acevedo, P., Boadella, M., Fierro, Y., Vicente, J., and Gortázar, C. (2013). Optimizing the sampling effort to evaluate body condition in ungulates: a case study on red deer. Ecological Indicators 30, 65–71.
| Optimizing the sampling effort to evaluate body condition in ungulates: a case study on red deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Somers, M., Gusset, M., and Dalerum, F. (2012). Modelling the effects of fences on the viability of spatially structured populations of the African wild dog. In ‘Fencing for Conservation: Restriction of Evolutionary Potential or a Riposte to Threatening Processes?’ (Eds M. Hayward and M. Somers.) pp. 187−196. (Springer Sciences + Business Media: New York.)
Stephens, D. W., and Krebs, J. R. (Eds.) (1986). ‘Foraging Theory.’ (Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ.)
Sudweeks, E. M., Ely, L. O., Mertens, D. R., and Sisk, L. R. (1981). Assessing minimum amounts and form of roughages in ruminant diets: roughage value index system. Journal of Animal Science 53, 1406–1411.
Timmons, G. R., Hewitt, D. G., Deyoung, C. A., Fulbright, T. E., and Draeger, D. A. (2010). Does supplemental feed increase selective foraging in a browsing ungulate? The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 995–1002.
| Does supplemental feed increase selective foraging in a browsing ungulate?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ueckermann, E. (1984). The effects of various feed components on the extent of bark-stripping by red deer. Zeitschrift fur Jagdwissenschaft 29, 31–47.
Vallentine, J. F. (Ed.) (1990). ‘Grazing Management.’ (Academic Press: San Diego, CA.)
Van der Merwe, P., Saayman, M., and Krugell, W. (2004). Factors that determine the price of game. Koedoe 47, 105–113.
| Factors that determine the price of game.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Soest, P. J. (1978). Dietary fibers: their definition and nutritional properties. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31, 12–20.
Van Soest, P. J. (Ed.) (1982). ‘Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant.’ (O&B Books: Corvallis, OR.)
Van Soest, P. J. (1996). Allometry and ecology of feeding behaviour and digestive capacity in herbivore. Zoo Biology 15, 455–479.
| Allometry and ecology of feeding behaviour and digestive capacity in herbivore.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Soest, P. J., Robertson, J. B., and Lewis, B. A. (1991). Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science 74, 3583–3597.
| Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK38%2FnvVCltA%3D%3D&md5=da45bdf11ffc5568bac99629c86df2e8CAS | 1660498PubMed |
Verheyden-Tixier, H., Renaud, P.-C., Morellet, N., Jamot, J., Besle, J.-M., and Dumont, B. (2008). Selection for nutrients by red deer hinds feeding on a mixed forest edge. Oecologia 156, 715–726.
| Selection for nutrients by red deer hinds feeding on a mixed forest edge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18357470PubMed |
Vicente, J., Hofle, U., García Fernández de Mera, I., and Gortázar, C. (2007). The importance of parasites life histories and host density in predicting the impact of infections in red deer. Oecologia 152, 655–664.
| The importance of parasites life histories and host density in predicting the impact of infections in red deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17401583PubMed |
Weisberg, P. J., Hobbs, N. T., Ellis, J. E., and Coughenour, M. B. (2002). An ecosystem approach to population management of ungulates. Journal of Environmental Management 65, 181–197.
| An ecosystem approach to population management of ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 12197079PubMed |
White, T. R. C. (Ed.) (1993). ‘The Inadequate Environment: Nitrogen and the Abundance of Animals.’ (Springer-Verlag: Berlin.)
White, M. A. (2012). Long-term effects of deer browsing: composition, structure and productivity in a northeastern Minnesota old-growth forest. Forest Ecology and Management 269, 222–228.
| Long-term effects of deer browsing: composition, structure and productivity in a northeastern Minnesota old-growth forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zar, J. H. (Ed.) (1984). ‘Biostatistical Analysis.’ 2nd edn. (Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
