Dispersal and home-range dynamics of exotic, male sika deer in Maryland
David M. Kalb A C , Jacob L. Bowman A and T. Brian Eyler B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A 250 Townsend Hall, 531 South College Avenue, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19717, USA.
B 14038 Blairs Valley Road, Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Annapolis, MD 21402, USA.
C Corresponding author. Email: dmkalb@udel.edu
Wildlife Research 40(4) 328-335 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR13037
Submitted: 19 February 2013 Accepted: 1 June 2013 Published: 21 June 2013
Abstract
Content: An unknown number (n = four or five) and sex of sika deer (Cervus nippon yakushimae) were introduced to the Delmarva Peninsula, Maryland, in 1916. Since introduction, their population has grown exponentially.
Aims: The purpose of our study was to investigate dispersal and home-range size to enable better management of this exotic species in the presence of native white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).
Methods: We collected telemetry locations on 60 males (captured during their first winter) from 2008 to 2010. Animals were classified into three movement groups, including local, migratory and nomadic post-dispersal.
Key results: Average home-range sizes ranged from 464 to 4121 ha and were influenced by season and deer movement grouping (P = 0.0001). Of 20 deer that dispersed, 19 did so at 1 year of age. Dispersal distance and direction were random across the landscape (P = 0.899). Local deer were the most common movement group (70%; 42 of 60) and were characterised by short movements confined to a well established home range. We observed 14 deer migrations, characterised by round-trip movements associated with seasons and directionality (P = 0.003). Four deer were classified as nomadic and had long-distance movements across the landscape unassociated with seasons.
Conclusions: To aid managers in controlling the expansion of the population, we provide data regarding the manner, distance and direction that sika deer move. Our results show that sika deer have variable movement strategies and large home ranges.
Implications: Variation in movement types will influence spread of the population, confounding species interactions, management and harvest strategies. The present results may have implications to other areas that also have sika populations.
Additional keywords: Cervus nippon yakushimae, home range, movements, nomadic, radio telemetry.
References
Anderson, D. P., Forester, J. D., Turner, M. G., Frair, J. L., Merrill, E. H., Fortin, D., Mao, J. S., and Boyce, M. S. (2005). Factors influencing female home range size in elk (Cervus elephus) in North American landscapes. Landscape Ecology 20, 257–271.| Factors influencing female home range size in elk (Cervus elephus) in North American landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Armstrong, W. E. (1980). The influence of exotic artiodactyls on white-tailed deer performance and survival. Performance report Job No. 20. Federal Aid Project No. W-109-R-3, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, TX.
Bartoš, L. (2009). Sika deer in continental Europe. In ‘Sika Deer Biology and Management of Native and Introduced Populations’. (Eds D. R. McCullough, S. Takatsuki and K. Kaji.) pp. 573–594. (Springer: New York.)
Blundell, G. M., Maier, J. A. K., and Debevec, E. M. (2001). Linear home ranges: effects of smoothing, sample size, and autocorrelation on kernel estimates. Ecological Monographs 71, 469–489.
| Linear home ranges: effects of smoothing, sample size, and autocorrelation on kernel estimates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conner, M. C., Soutiere, E. C., and Lancia, R. A. (1987). Drop-netting deer: costs and incidence of capture myopathy. Wildlife Society Bulletin 15, 434–438.
Crooks, J. A., and Soulé, M. E. (1999). Lag times in population explosions of invasive species: causes and implications. In ‘Invasive Species and Biodiversity Management’. (Eds O. T. Sandlund, P. O. Schei and A. S. Viken.) pp. 103–125. (Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.)
Demarais, S., Baccus, J. T., and Traweek, M. S. (1998). Nonindigenous ungulates in Texas: long-term population trends and possible competitive mechanisms. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 63, 49–55.
DeNicola, A. J., and Swihart, R. K. (1997). Capture-induced stress in white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25, 500–503.
Diefenbach, D. R., and Christensen, S. A. (2009). Movement and habitat use of sika and white-tailed deer on Assateague Island National Seashore, Maryland. United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Philadelphia, PA.
Endo, A. (2009). Variations in mating behavior of sika deer: mating behavior of sika deer on Nozaki Island. In ‘Sika Deer Biology and Management of Native and Introduced Populations’. (Eds D. R. McCullough, S. Takatsuki and K. Kaji.) pp. 287–296. (Springer: New York.)
Eyler, T. B. (2001). Habitat use and movements of sympatric sika deer (Cervus Nippon) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Dorchester County, Maryland. Thesis. University of Maryland Eastern Shore the Graduate School, Princess Anne, MD.
Eyler, T. B., and Timko, G. (2008). Maryland annual deer report 2007–2008. Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife and Heritage Service, Annapolis, MD.
Feldhamer, G. A. (1980). Mammalian species: Cervus nippon. The American Society of Mammalogists 128, 1–7.
Feldhamer G. A. Armstrong W. E. 1993
Feldhamer, G. A., and Demarais, S. (2009). Free ranging and confined sika deer in North America: current status, biology and management. In ‘Sika Deer Biology and Management of Native and Introduced Populations’. (Eds D. R. McCullough, S. Takatsuki and K. Kaji.) pp. 615–642. (Springer: New York.)
Feldhamer, G. A., and Marcus, M. A. (1994). Reproductive performance of female sika deer in Maryland. The Journal of Wildlife Management 58, 670–673.
| Reproductive performance of female sika deer in Maryland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Feldhamer, G. A., Dixon, K. R., and Chapman, J. A. (1982). Home range and movement of sika deer (Cervus Nippon) in Maryland. Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 47, 311–316.
Feldhamer, G. A., Stauffer, J. R., and Chapman, J. A. (1984). Body morphology and weight relationships of sika deer in Maryland. Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 50, 88–106.
Flyger, V. (1960). Sika deer on islands in Maryland and Virginia. Journal of Mammalogy 41, 140.
| Sika deer on islands in Maryland and Virginia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fry, J., Xian, G., Jin, S., Dewitz, J., Homer, C., Yang, L., Barnes, C., Herold, N., and Wickham, J. (2011). Completion of the 2006 National Land Cover Database for the conterminous United States. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 77, 858–864.
Fryxell, J. M., Wilmshurst, J. F., and Sinclair, R. E. (2004). Predictive models of movement by Serengeti grazers. Ecological Society of America 85, 2429–2435.
Harmel, D. (1980). The influence of exotic artiodactyls on white-tailed deer performance and survival. Performance report for Job No. 20. Federal Aid Project W-109-R-3. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Austin, TX.
Hölzenbein, S., and Marchinton, R. L. (1992). Spatial integration of maturing-male white-tailed deer into the adult population. Journal of Mammalogy 73, 326–334.
| Spatial integration of maturing-male white-tailed deer into the adult population.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hooge, P. N., and Eichenlaub, B. (1997). ‘Animal Movement Extension to Arcview. Version 1.1.’ (Alaska Science Center, Biological Science Office, US Geological Survey: Anchorage, AK.)
Igota, H., Sakuragi, M., and Uno, H. (2009). Seasonal migration of sika deer on Hokkaido Island, Japan. In ‘Sika Deer Biology and Management of Native and Introduced Populations’. (Eds D. R. McCullough, S. Takatsuki and K. Kaji.) pp. 251–272. (Springer: New York.)
Keiper, R. R. (1985). Are sika deer responsible for the decline of white-tailed deer on Assateague Island, Maryland? Wildlife Society Bulletin 13, 144–146.
Keiper, R. R. (1990). Biology of large grazing mammals on the Virginia barrier islands. Virginia Journal of Science 41, 352–363.
Kilpatrick, H. J., and Spohr, S. M. (1999). Telazol®-xylazine versus ketamine-xylazine: a field evaluation for immobilizing white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27, 566–570.
Kilpatrick, H. J., and Spohr, S. M. (2000). Spatial and temporal use of a suburban landscape by female white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28, 1023–1029.
King, S. R. B., and Gurnell, J. (2005). Habitat use and spatial dynamics of tahki introduced to Hustai National Park, Mongolia. Biological Conservation 124, 277–290.
| Habitat use and spatial dynamics of tahki introduced to Hustai National Park, Mongolia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koizumi, T., Hamasaki, S., Kishimoto, M., Yokoyama, M., Kobayashi, M., and Yasutake, A. (2009). Reproduction of female sika deer in western Japan. In ‘Sika Deer Biology and Management of Native and Introduced Populations’. (Eds D. R. McCullough, S. Takatsuki and K. Kaji.) pp. 327–364. (Springer: New York.)
Larkin, R. P., Raim, A., and Diehl, R. H. (1996). Performance of a non-rotating direction-finder for automatic radio tracking. Journal of Field Ornithology 67, 59–71.
Long, E. S., Diefenbach, D. R., Rosenberry, C. S., and Wallingford, B. D. (2008). Multiple proximate and ultimate causes of natal dispersal in white-tailed deer. Behavioral Ecology 19, 1235–1242.
| Multiple proximate and ultimate causes of natal dispersal in white-tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCorquodale, S. A. (2003). Sex specific movement and habitat use by elk in the cascade range of Washington. The Journal of Wildlife Management 67, 729–741.
| Sex specific movement and habitat use by elk in the cascade range of Washington.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCoy, J. E., Hewitt, D. G., and Brynt, F. C. (2005). Dispersal by yearling male white-tailed deer and implications for management. The Journal of Wildlife Management 69, 366–376.
| Dispersal by yearling male white-tailed deer and implications for management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCullough, D. R. (1985). Long range movements of terrestrial mammals. Contributions in Marine Science 27, 444–465.
Minami, M., Ohnishi, N., and Takatsuki, S. (2009). Survival patterns of male and female sika deer on Kinkazan Island, north Japan. In ‘Sika Deer Biology and Management of Native and Introduced Populations’. (Eds D. R. McCullough, S. Takatsuki and K. Kaji.) pp. 375–384. (Springer: New York.)
Miura, S. (1984). Social behavior and territoriality in male sika deer (Cervus nippon Teminck 1838) during the rut. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 64, 33–73.
| Social behavior and territoriality in male sika deer (Cervus nippon Teminck 1838) during the rut.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moore, B. (1980). A modification of the Rayleigh test for vector data. Biometrika 67, 175–180.
| A modification of the Rayleigh test for vector data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2009). US Department of Commerce. Climatography of the United States No. 20, 1971–2000. Last updated 20 May 2009. Available at http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/climatenormals/climatenormals.pl [verified 8 June 2009].
Nelson, M. E., and Mech, L. D. (1984). Home range formation and dispersal of deer in northeastern Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 65, 567–575.
| Home range formation and dispersal of deer in northeastern Minnesota.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Petersburg, M. L., Alldredge, A. W., and de Vergie, W. J. (2000). Emigration and survival of 2-year-old male elk in northwestern Colorado. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28, 708–716.
Rhoads, C. L. (2006). Spatial ecology and responses to a controlled hunt of female white-tailed deer in an exurban park. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Delaware, Newark, DE.
Rhoads, C. L., Bowman, J. L., and Eyler, T. B. (2010). Home range and movement rates of female exurban white-tailed deer. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 987–994.
| Home range and movement rates of female exurban white-tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rongstad, O. J., and Tester, J. R. (1969). Movements and habitat use of white-tailed deer in Minnesota. The Journal of Wildlife Management 33, 366–379.
| Movements and habitat use of white-tailed deer in Minnesota.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rosenberry, C. S., Lancia, R. A., and Conner, M. C. (1999). Population effects of white-tailed deer dispersal. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27, 858–864.
Sabine, D. L., Morrison, S. F., Whitlaw, H. A., Ballard, W. B., Forbes, G. J., and Bowman, J. (2002). Migration behavior of white-tailed deer under varying winter climate regimes in New Brunswick. The Journal of Wildlife Management 62, 205–213.
Saltz, D. (1994). Reporting error measures in radio location by triangulation: a review. The Journal of Wildlife Management 58, 181–184.
| Reporting error measures in radio location by triangulation: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Seaman, D. E., Millspaugh, J. J., Kernohan, B. J., Brundige, G. C., Raedeke, K. J., and Gitzen, R. A. (1999). Effects of sample size on kernel home range estimates. The Journal of Wildlife Management 63, 739–747.
| Effects of sample size on kernel home range estimates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sokal, R. R., and Rohlf, F. J. (1995). ‘Biometry: the principles and practice of statistics in biological research.’ (W. H. Freeman and Company: New York.)
Swanson, G. M., and Putman, R. (2009). Sika deer in the British Isles. In ‘Sika Deer Biology and Management of Native and Introduced Populations’. (Eds D. R. McCullough, S. Takatsuki and K. Kaji.) pp. 595–614. (Springer: New York.)
Tierson, W. C., Mattfeld, G. F., Sage, R. W., and Behrend, D. F. (1985). Seasonal movements and home ranges of white-tailed deer in the Adirondacks. The Journal of Wildlife Management 49, 760–769.
| Seasonal movements and home ranges of white-tailed deer in the Adirondacks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Torii, H., and Tatsuzawa, S. (2009). Sika deer in Nara Park: unique human-wildlife relations. In ‘Sika Deer Biology and Management of Native and Introduced Populations’. (Eds D. R. McCullough, S. Takatsuki and K. Kaji.) pp. 347–364. (Springer: New York.)
Ueno, M., Kaji, K., and Saitoh, T. (2010). Culling versus density effects in management of a deer population. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 1472–1483.
United States Geological Survey (2006). ‘Through the Ages.’ Available at http//www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resources/mammals/agelk/ages.htm [verified 3 April 2009].
Vanpé, C., Morellet, N., Kjellander, P., Goullard, M., Liberg, O., and Hewison, A. J. M. (2009). Access to mates in territorial ungulate is determined by the size of male’s territory, but not its habitat quality. Journal of Animal Ecology 78, 42–51.
| Access to mates in territorial ungulate is determined by the size of male’s territory, but not its habitat quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18752539PubMed |
Wahlström, L. K. (1994). The significance of male-male aggression for yearling dispersal in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 35, 409–412.
| The significance of male-male aggression for yearling dispersal in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Webb, S. L., Demarias, S., and Hewitt, D. G. (2010). Size of home range and movements determine size and configuration of management units and potential spread of disease in white-tailed deer. The Southwestern Naturalist 55, 488–492.
| Size of home range and movements determine size and configuration of management units and potential spread of disease in white-tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Webmet (2002). The meteorological resource center. Home page. Available at http://www.webmet.com/met_monitoring/toc.html [verified 4 April 2011].
Worton, B. J. (1989). Kernel methods for estimating the utilization distribution in home range studies. Ecology 70, 164–168.
| Kernel methods for estimating the utilization distribution in home range studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
