Living with predators: a focus on the issues of human–crocodile conflict within the lower Zambezi valley
Kevin M. Wallace A C , Alison J. Leslie B and Tim Coulson CA Imperial College London, Department of Ecology and Evolution, Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire, SL5 7PY, United Kingdom.
B University of Stellenbosch, Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Faculty of Agrisciences, P/Bag X1, Matieland 7600, South Africa.
C Corresponding author. Email: k.wallace08@imperial.ac.uk
Wildlife Research 38(8) 747-755 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR11083
Submitted: 2 May 2011 Accepted: 30 October 2011 Published: 9 December 2011
Abstract
Context: Human–wildlife conflict is a global problem and increasing worldwide as people and wildlife compete for limited resources. Conflict between people and crocodiles, especially in Africa, is recognised as a serious problem. The people of the Chiawa Game Management Area are heavily dependent on the Zambezi River for several resources from potable water and irrigating fields to a source of food (subsistence and small-scale commercial fishing).
Aims: To assess the spatial and temporal scale of human–crocodile conflict (HCC) and identify associated factors, with a view to recommending mitigation measures.
Methods: A questionnaire survey and Zambia Wildlife Authority data were utilised to estimate the scale of HCC.
Key results: Between 2000 and 2009, there were 98 crocodile attacks on people, 62.2% were fatal. Most of the attacks occurred while canoe fishing (57.1%) and collecting water (29.6%). Crocodiles were disliked and seen as a ‘problem’ by the majority of the populace. Even though crocodiles are a charismatic mega-fauna species, being employed within the tourism industry had only a minor positive effect on people’s attitudes. The area is an important location for crocodile egg and adult harvesting, although the local population gains no financial benefit. An increase in the number of boreholes in the villages was suggested by the local people as the primary mitigation measure, as well as the removal of crocodiles by various means.
Conclusions: Although people displayed an understanding of the risks of crocodile attack, very few actually employed mitigation techniques or utilised protective barriers when at the river. Increased water-access points (and their maintenance) in the villages would reduce people’s dependency on the river. The negative attitude towards crocodiles is an issue that has to be addressed to allow successful implementation of long-term conservation strategies.
Implications: Understanding local people’s attitudes towards wildlife is an important aspect within any conservation management plan.
Additional keywords: attack, attitudes, management, mitigation.
References
Aust, P., Boyle, B., Fergusson, R., and Coulson, T. (2009). The impact of Nile crocodiles on rural livelihoods in northeastern Namibia. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 39, 57–69.| The impact of Nile crocodiles on rural livelihoods in northeastern Namibia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
AWF, (2010). African Wildlife Foundation: The African Heartlands - A New Approach to African Wildlife Conservation. Available at http://www.awf.org/section/heartlands [accessed 17 November 2011]
Balmford, A., Bruner, A., Cooper, P., Costanza, R., Farber, S., Green, R. E., Jenkins, M., Jefferiss, P., Jessamy, V., Madden, J., Munro, K., Myers, N., Naeem, S., Paavola, J., Rayment, M., Rosendo, S., Roughgarden, J., Trumper, K., and Turner, R. K. (2002). Ecology - economic reasons for conserving wild nature. Science 297, 950–953.
| Ecology - economic reasons for conserving wild nature.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baruch-Mordo, S., Breck, S. W., Wilson, K. R., and Broderick, J. (2009). A tool box half full: how social science can help solve human–wildlife conflict. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 14, 219–223.
| A tool box half full: how social science can help solve human–wildlife conflict.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brockington, D., and Scholfield, K. (2010). The work of conservation organisations in sub-Saharan Africa. The Journal of Modern African Studies 48, 1–33.
| The work of conservation organisations in sub-Saharan Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Caldicott, D. G. E., Croser, D., Manolis, C., Webb, G., and Britton, A. (2005). Crocodile attack in Australia: an analysis of its incidence and review of the pathology and management of crocodilian attacks in general. Wilderness & Environmental Medicine 16, 143–159.
| Crocodile attack in Australia: an analysis of its incidence and review of the pathology and management of crocodilian attacks in general.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chansa, W., Siamudaala, V., Kampamba, G., and Changwe, K. (2005). ‘The National Crocodile Conservation Plan.’ (Zambia Wildlife Authority: Chilanga, Zambia.)
Cott, H. B. (1961). Scientific results of an enquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda and northern Rhodesia. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 29, 211–356.
Dickman, A. J. (2010). Complexities of conflict: the importance of considering social factors for effectively resolving human–wildlife conflict. Animal Conservation 13, 458–466.
| Complexities of conflict: the importance of considering social factors for effectively resolving human–wildlife conflict.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dunham, K. M., Ghiurghi, A., Cumbi, R., and Urbano, F. (2010). Human–wildlife conflict in Mozambique: a national perspective, with emphasis on wildlife attacks on humans. Oryx 44, 185–193.
| Human–wildlife conflict in Mozambique: a national perspective, with emphasis on wildlife attacks on humans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fergusson, R. A. (2004). Human–crocodile conflicts. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter 21, 20–23.
Frost, P. G. H., and Bond, I. (2008). The CAMPFIRE programme in Zimbabwe: payments for wildlife services. Ecological Economics 65, 776–787.
| The CAMPFIRE programme in Zimbabwe: payments for wildlife services.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Groom, R., and Harris, S. (2008). Conservation on community lands: the importance of equitable revenue sharing. Environmental Conservation 35, 242–251.
| Conservation on community lands: the importance of equitable revenue sharing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heykoop, J., and Frechette, D. L. (2001). Gatornomics: profitable and sustainable use of alligators in the southeastern United States. Marine Resource Economics 16, 127–142.
Infield, M., and Namara, A. (2001). Community attitudes and behaviour towards conservation: an assessment of a community conservation programme around Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda. Oryx 35, 48–60.
IUCN, (2004). CITES CoP13 Prop. 26.. Consideration of Proposals for Amendment of Appendices I and II. Available at http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/13/prop/E13-P26.pdf [accessed 17 November 2011]
IUCN, (2010). Category IV – Habitat Species Management Area. Available at http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/pa/pa_products/wcpa_categories/pa_categoryiv/ [accessed 17 November 2011]
Letnic, M., and Connors, G. (2006). Changes in the distribution and abundance of saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) in the upstream, freshwater reaches of rivers in the Northern Territory. Australian Wildlife Research 33, 529–538.
| Changes in the distribution and abundance of saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) in the upstream, freshwater reaches of rivers in the Northern Territory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Luxmoore, R. A. (Ed.) (1992). ‘Directory of Crocodilian Farming Operations.’ 2nd edn. (IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.)
Madden, F. (2004). Creating coexistence between humans and wildlife: global perspectives on local efforts to address human–wildlife conflict. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 9, 247–257.
| Creating coexistence between humans and wildlife: global perspectives on local efforts to address human–wildlife conflict.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Manfredo, M. J., and Dayer, A. A. (2004). Concepts for exploring the social aspects of human–wildlife conflict in a global context. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 9, 1–20.
| Concepts for exploring the social aspects of human–wildlife conflict in a global context.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mazzotti, F. J., Best, G. R., Brandt, L. A., Cherkiss, M. S., Jeffery, B. M., and Rice, K. G. (2009). Alligators and crocodiles as indicators for restoration of Everglades ecosystems. Ecological Indicators 9, S137–S149.
| Alligators and crocodiles as indicators for restoration of Everglades ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McGregor, J. (2005). Crocodile crimes: people versus wildlife and the politics of postcolonial conservation on Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. Geoforum 36, 353–369.
| Crocodile crimes: people versus wildlife and the politics of postcolonial conservation on Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Muruthi, P. (2005). African Heartlands: a science-based and pragmatic approach to landscape level conservation in Africa. African Wildlife Foundation Conservation in Practice Papers. Available at http://www.awf.org/content/document/detail/3230 [accessed 17 November 2011]
Nichols, T., and Letnic, M. (2008). Problem crocodiles: reducing the risk of attacks by Crocodylus porosus in Darwin Harbour, Northern Territory, Australia. In ‘Urban Herpetology. Herpetological Conservation. Vol. 3’. (Eds J. C. Mitchell, R. E. Jung Brown and B. Bartholomew.) pp. 503–511. (Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles: Salt Lake City, UT.)
Odinot, G., Wolters, G., and van Koppen, P. J. (2009). Eyewitness memory of a supermarket robbery: a case study of accuracy and confidence after 3 months. Law and Human Behavior 33, 506–514.
| Eyewitness memory of a supermarket robbery: a case study of accuracy and confidence after 3 months.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Romanach, S. S., Lindsey, P. A., and Woodroffe, R. (2007). Determinants of attitudes towards predators in central Kenya and suggestions for increasing tolerance in livestock dominated landscapes. Oryx 41, 185–195.
| Determinants of attitudes towards predators in central Kenya and suggestions for increasing tolerance in livestock dominated landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stronza, A., and Pegas, F. (2008). Ecotourism and conservation: two cases from Brazil and Peru. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 13, 263–279.
| Ecotourism and conservation: two cases from Brazil and Peru.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomas, G. T. (2006). Human–crocodile conflict (Nile crocodile: Crocodylus niloticus) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Treves, A., Naughton-Treves, L., Harper, E. K., Mladenoff, D. J., Rose, R. A., Sickley, T. A., and Wydeven, A. P. (2004). Predicting human–carnivore conflict: a spatial model derived from 25 years of data on wolf predation on livestock. Conservation Biology 18, 114–125.
| Predicting human–carnivore conflict: a spatial model derived from 25 years of data on wolf predation on livestock.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Treves, A., Wallace, R. B., Naughton-Treves, L., and Morales, A. (2006). Co-managing human–wildlife conflicts: a review. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 11, 383–396.
| Co-managing human–wildlife conflicts: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Willgerodt, M. A. (2003). Using focus groups to develop culturally relevant instruments. Western Journal of Nursing Research 25, 798–814.
| Using focus groups to develop culturally relevant instruments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
ZAWA, (2010). Game Management Areas. (Zambia Wildlife Authority.) Available at http://www.zawa.org.zm/game_management.htm [accessed 17 November 2011]
Zinn, H. C., and Pierce, C. L. (2002). Values, gender, and concern about potentially dangerous wildlife. Environment and Behavior 34, 239–256.
| Values, gender, and concern about potentially dangerous wildlife.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
