Abstract
Past hunter-gatherer societies are often perceived as having co-existed harmoniously with their environment. In reality, few ecosystems remain unaltered following the arrival of humans and the relationship between people and wildlife over the past thousand years is characterised more by conflict than harmony. Over this period, many industrialised countries, particularly in Europe, have seen a substantial loss of natural habitats, in parallel with huge increases in human populations. England is one such country; here, the human population is estimated to have increased 45-fold since 1066 AD. Over the past 50 years, however, many of these countries have witnessed a change in public attitudes, leading to ‘protective’ legislation for species and habitats, with the subsequent recovery of at least some species. As a result, some people now argue that certain species are ‘over-protected’, leading to calls to remove protection. We review how the regulatory system in England is used to achieve a sustainable balance between wildlife and human interests, illustrated with examples from key areas of conflict. In all, more than 8000 licences permitting activities affecting protected species are issued in England each year, about half of which concern human–wildlife conflicts, including almost 1000 aimed at preventing serious damage by wildlife. We estimate that wildlife licences are relied on by more than 100 000 people to resolve human–wildlife conflicts. In most cases, less than 1% of a species’ population is likely to be affected by regulated activities and, where this is not the case, thresholds are set to ensure the control measures do not lead to the long-term detriment of populations. We conclude by suggesting how the legislative framework may need to adapt to deliver modern aspirations to reconcile human and wildlife interests.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the assistance of Deborah Frost and Chris Bryant for collating licensing data, and Ashley Matthews and two anonymous referees for their constructive and helpful comments on the paper.
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1
e.g. Destructive Imported Animals Act 1932, Agriculture Act 1947, Prevention of Damage by Pests Act 1949 and Pests Act 1954.
2 Early examples include the Protection of Birds Act 1954, Deer Act 1963 and Badgers Act 1973.
3 Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 1979 on the conservation of wild birds (Birds Directive).
4 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (Habitats Directive).
5 No satisfactory alternative: an over-arching condition that all (European derived) derogations must satisfy and which, as a matter of policy, the government has extended to all licensing. There are three components to this test, including the following: what is the problem or specific situation that needs to be addressed; are there any other solutions; and if so, will these resolve the problem or specific situation for which the derogation is sought? The competent authority is required to choose, among the possible alternatives; the most appropriate that will ensure the best protection of the species (European Commission 2007).
6 Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act 2006, Section 2(1).
7 Pests Act 1954.
8 The Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996 made causing ‘unnecessary suffering’ an offence.
9 Destructive Imported Animals Act 1932, Agriculture Act 1947, Prevention of Damage by Pests Act 1949 and the Pests Act 1954.
10 Favourable conservation status: the condition where a species is doing sufficiently well in terms of abundance and distribution, and has good prospects of continuing to do so in future (see European Commission 2007, for full definition).
11 Natural range: the spatial limits within which the species occurs. It is not static but dynamic; it can decrease and expand. When considering impacts on species, consideration must be given at all resolutions of range, from local populations to the collective population of all European Member States.
12 Protection of Birds Act 1954.
13 Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
14 For example, the various Badger Acts (consolidated as the Protection of Badgers Act 1992), the Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996 and the Hunting Act 2004.
15 Protection of Badgers Act 1992.
16 Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
17 Game Act 1832.
18 European Union by Council Regulation (EEC) 3254/91.
19 Pests Act 1954.
20 Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
21 Directive 98/8/EC (the Biocides Directive) and Directive 91/414/EEC (Plant Protection Product Directive).
22 The Agreement on International Humane Trapping Standards was signed by Canada and the EU in 1997 and by the Russian Federation in 1998. A separate bilateral agreement with equivalent standards was signed between the USA and Europe in 1998. It applies only to commercially trapped fur-bearing species, of which only the stoat, badger, otter and pine martin are currently found in the UK.
23 The Spring Traps Approval (Variation) (England) Order 2007 (Statutory Instrument 2007 No. 2708).
