Traditional owner-led wartaji (dingo) research in Pirra Country (Great Sandy Desert): a case study from the Nyangumarta Warrarn Indigenous Protected Area

Introduction

Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) are areas of land and sea managed by First Nations groups to protect and conserve biodiversity and cultural values, in line with Traditional Owner objectives (see Smyth 2006; Ross et al. 2009; Godden and Cowell 2016). The IPA program is based on voluntary declarations of Aboriginal-owned land to Australia’s National Reserve System (NRS), where the Traditional Owners are compensated for continued land management per IUCN guidelines (Szabo and Smyth 2003). There are currently 85 dedicated IPAs protecting over 87 × 10⁶ ha, representing more than 50% of the NRS (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water 2024). The program requires Traditional Owners to develop management plans that integrate traditional stewardship with current conservation efforts. This may include objectives and activities such as threatened species monitoring and protection, pest management, protection of cultural sites and knowledge, interpretive activities for visitors, and revegetation. In most cases, the IPA program is complemented by the ‘Working on Country’ and the ‘Indigenous Rangers Programs’ that offer stable, long-term resourcing for many initiatives, particularly the employment of Aboriginal rangers (Mackie and Meacheam 2016). IPAs are highly successful and often result in a raft of socio-cultural, political and ecological benefits (Tran et al. 2020).

In this paper, we focus on the work being conducted within the Nyangumarta Warrarn IPA in relation to research and management of the dingo (Canis dingo), a native free-ranging Australian canid of significant ecological and cultural importance to the Nyangumarta people. We describe the development and successful implementation of an Indigenous-led project focusing on the dingo (hereafter wartaji, the language name for the dingo) that involved a collaboration between rangers and university-based researchers. Such information is important for understanding the dingo’s role in the landscape and making informed dingo management and conservation actions that are culturally appropriate and foster a healthy Country.

The Nyangumarta Warrarn Indigenous Protected Area

Nyangumarta Warrarn Country is in Western Australia’s north-western Pilbara and south-western Kimberly region. Nyangumarta people are the Traditional Owners of more than 33,843 km² of native-title determined lands extending from ~110 km of coastline along Eighty Mile Beach and ~320 km deep into Pirra Country (or The Great Sandy Desert, GSD). Notably, this region holds significant importance for both conservation initiatives and Aboriginal cultural heritage, for example, sacred sites, stories, and songlines that cross the broader region (Nyangumarta Warrarn Aboriginal Corporation and Yamatji Marlpa Aboriginal Corporation 2022).

In 2015, Nyangumarta decided to declare an Indigenous Protected Area (IPA) of ~28,000 km² of country encompassing the GSD, including Walyarta Conservation Park, and Kujungurru Warrarn Conservation Park, Kujunguru Nature Reserve, and Eighty Mile Beach Marine Park Intertidal Park along the coastline. The biodiversity and cultural resources of the many habitats within the IPA are managed by the Nyangumarta Warrarn Aboriginal Corporation RNTBC (NWAC). NWAC has worked closely with Yamatji Marlpa Aboriginal Corporation (YMAC) for nearly 20 years, and the partnership continues with the ranger program and its management.

The Nyangumarta rangers are based out of Bidyadanga, a remote Aboriginal Community 180 km south of Broome. The rangers have six part-time staff and a casual pool of 40 rangers, cultural advisors and Elders. The rangers hold return-to-country trips annually for members of the Nyangumarta community who live in other areas, including Broome, Port Hedland, Marble Bar, Yandeyarra, and Warralong. These return to Country trips are integral for knowledge transfer and for the community to be on-Country and provide a cultural governance mechanism for the community to give direct input into management programs.

The current management plan for the IPA spans 2022–2032 (Nyangumarta Warrarn Aboriginal Corporation and Yamatji Marlpa Aboriginal Corporation 2022). Their annual work plans contain a component focusing on fauna and flora, whether through opportunistic data collection when rangers are working in the IPA or through specific surveys usually conducted in collaboration with Parks and Wildlife, environmental consulting firms, or conservation organisations.

A meeting of Nyangumarta Traditional Owners, including Nyangumarta rangers and Elders, was held in 2021 at the Bidyadanga ranger base to discuss the work plan of the following year. During this planning, the rangers and community members discussed what was important to learn to better understand the characteristics of a healthy Country. During the meeting, everyone enthusiastically agreed that a priority should be to learn more about the wartaji on Nyangumarta country. They then collectively identified the key areas they wanted to better understand. This included learning more about the wartaji’s behaviour and lifestyle, the role of wartaji in fostering a healthy Country, and how wartaji should be managed and monitored. Specific questions included finding out where on the IPA the wartaji lived, how many wartaji were there, what they ate (diet), and whether there were distinct populations between the west and east of the IPA. Another key question related to how wartaji interact with feral species such as foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and cats (Felis catus), which are present on the IPA and the subject of concern because of their impact on native fauna.

The historical, cultural, spiritual and ecological importance of the dingo

The dingo holds significant cultural and spiritual importance for First Nations peoples across Australia. According to Traditional beliefs, the relationship between dingoes and people has existed since the beginning of time (Creation), and according to science between 5 and 10,000 years (Cairns and Wilton 2016; Zhang et al. 2020). In some areas, the dingo is thought to have played a key role in human origins (Rose 1992). Dingoes regularly feature in Dreamtime, art, ceremony, and songlines as important figures, including as creators and protectors who help establish lore (Smith and Litchfield 2009; Costello et al. 2021). In fact, the dingo is among the most represented animals in the Dreamtime (Kolig 1973).

Dingoes are considered family or kin (Musharbash 2017; Costello et al. 2021), often receiving skin identities/names and burials in the same manner and place as human burials (Smith and Litchfield 2009; Koungoulos et al. 2023). There are several examples where the dingo is a sacred totem (Rose 1992; McIntosh 1999).

At various times, dingoes have served many practical roles, including aiding hunting activities (Koungoulos and Fillios 2020), assisting in finding water, particularly in desert landscapes (Philip 2021), as guardians and protectors (both in the living and spiritual world), campsite cleaners, as a source of warmth, and as loved companions (Smith and Litchfield 2009). A clear distinction was often given between dingoes that were free living (or wild) and those that were tame (or camp companions) (Smith 2015). The deep relationship continues today, with canids of all types being considered an important and positive part of many communities across Australia (Meehan et al. 1999; Musharbash 2017; Ma et al. 2020).

Despite the clear significance of dingoes to Aboriginal cultural heritage values, First Nations peoples are often excluded from their management and protection. The involvement of Aboriginal people in dingo management continues to be controversial and problematic (Carter et al. 2017; Costello et al. 2021). To begin changing this, a First Nations dingo forum was held in 2023 to discuss the dingo, its place in legislation and current management practices (Girringun Aboriginal Corporation 2023). The forum, a first of its kind, was organised by the Girringun Aboriginal Corporation and included representations of more than 20 First Nations groups, including the Nyangumarta rangers. An outcome of the forum included a strong declaration that reinforced (among other things) the importance of the dingo to First Nations peoples and for maintaining a healthy Country (where healthy Country requires the presence of dingoes, which in turn positively influences human health and wellbeing; see Cameron 2020), as well as their desire and right to maintain their cultural obligations to protect the dingo (Lu 2023). The need to work with all stakeholders to find management approaches that ‘strike a balance between safeguarding human interests, preserving the vital ecological role that dingoes perform, and respecting First Nations’ culture’ (Ritchie et al. 2023, see ‘Working and walking together’ section) was also recognised.

The relationship between the Nyangumarta people and wartaji mirrors that of First Nation peoples around Australia. The Nyangumarta people believe that the wartaji have always lived alongside them, and are deeply entwined with their people spiritually and practically as protectors, hunting assistants and companions. Wartaji are also considered environmental protectors, helping maintain ecological balance in the Great Sandy Desert region. Their presence is seen as integral to, and a symbol of a healthy Country. This relationship and connection were summarised by senior Nyangumarta ranger and co-author, Augustine Badal, as follows:

Dingo be here all the time in Australia. Had a relationship with Aboriginal people in Dreaming and is a spirit animal – a companion and a totem for people. The old people all say they had dingoes when they were living in the desert. They used dingo for hunting and as pets. Always together. They protect the land and watch it. Dingo is a sign of healthy Country. They can get rid of cats. They are a friend. They can protect people and warn a family group of other people coming and keeping other dingoes away. They can chase away spirits and beings. Old people used to feed them the same feed they ate.

The wartaji feature in many Nyangumarta Dreamtime stories, including the one provided below as told by a senior Nyangumarta man. This Dreamtime parable shows that wartaji were not just a companion and helpers (for finding food and water), but an intellectual leader and teacher, and showing how humans inherited their roles and knowledge from the wartaji. The story also emphasises the cultural responsibility of the Nyangumarta people to care for the wartaji and all their canine descendants and relatives.

Wartaji, contemporary IPA management, and the beginning of a collaboration

The region boasts a rich and diverse array of vertebrate fauna, particularly reptiles and birds (see van Etten 2020; Nou et al. 2021). A number of small-to-medium-sized mammal species have been lost since colonisation, and many, including the bilby (Macrotis lagotis) and black-footed rock wallaby (Petrogale lateralis) are considered threatened or vulnerable to extinction (Bastin and the ACRIS Management Committee 2008; van Etten 2020). The dingo is present across the region and is not considered threatened. Factors posing significant challenges to local biodiversity and ecosystem health include invasive predators such as feral cats, foxes, and feral camels (Camelus dromedarius), excessive grazing, and changes in fire regimes (Woinarski et al. 2015; van Etten 2020).

Within the IPA, wartaji are largely left unmanaged. Even though only ~7% of the GSD bioregion is grazed with cattle (Bastin and the ACRIS Management Committee 2008), the IPA shares boundaries with three pastoral stations (Anna Plains Station, Wallal Station and Mandora Station) that actively undertake lethal control of wartaji by poison-baiting and trapping. Wartaji are regularly observed within the Nyangumarta Warrarn IPA through ad hoc observations, and during regular fauna and flora surveys (e.g. 2-ha track plots and remote-sensor cameras) focused on species such as jirrartu (bilby) and karapulu (black-footed rock wallabies). However, no formal wartaji survey has been conducted. As a result, the status, population, distribution and behaviour of wartaji within the IPA are largely unknown.

A focus on wartaji fosters a greater understanding of its role in the landscape, aids in the understanding of a healthy Country, and upskills rangers in scientific approaches to studying wildlife. At the same time, it encourages discussions around the cultural importance of the wartaji. Such information is important for making informed management and conservation decisions that reflect many of the key Nyangumarta values relating to managing Country as outlined in the current IPA ‘Plan of Management’ (Nyangumarta Warrarn Aboriginal Corporation and Yamatji Marlpa Aboriginal Corporation 2022). Such values include preserving Marrngumili (Law and Culture), caring for Country, and applying and sharing their extensive knowledge and spiritual connection with Pirra Country.

The IPA ‘Plan of Management’ sets out the overarching values, strategies and programs, which are implemented through annual work plans. Each year, the rangers, with advice from their Elders and the IPA Advisory Committee, develop and then conduct this work plan. A wartaji-specific work plan was subsequently developed for the 2022/2023 season, which detailed the actions (‘to commence fieldwork with wartaji experts’), and the desired outcomes (‘to tabulate preliminary findings and investigate future steps for a long-term wartaji study’). This work plan relates to several programs outlined in the Plan of Management (Nyangumarta Warrarn Aboriginal Corporation and Yamatji Marlpa Aboriginal Corporation 2022). Primarily, wartaji-focused activities directly address Program 4 (Native Plants and Animals), which purports to ‘Continue to work with partners to build knowledge of threatened species and ecological communities over time in Pirra Country to ascertain the health of Country and impact of management regime (e.g. long-term biodiversity sites)’. However, it relates indirectly to several other programs, including Program 5, ‘Capability and capacity building’, where IPA rangers are developing specialised skills; Program 1, ‘Cultural and natural heritage management’, where the goal is to document language stories and songs in relation to wartaji; and Program 6, ‘Feral animal and weed management’, which explores the relationship between wartaji and cats.

Responding to the community-led discussions and priorities, the YMAC program manager invited researchers from Central Queensland University to collaborate and help establish a wartaji project. This partnership was sought as the rangers recognised the need to bridge their traditional ecological knowledge with modern scientific methods. This strategic engagement with university-based researchers not only empowered the rangers to enhance their conservation practices but also ensured that they played a central role in shaping the direction and objectives of the project. Early discussions between researchers and IPA management (program coordinators, IPA coordinator, and ranger coordinator) were used to develop the aims and scope of the program, which included taking into account the feasibility of such goals (e.g. budgets, timelines, and deliverables).

The final project involved a short camera-trapping-based survey to establish a baseline of information on which to build. After a proposal was agreed on, a memorandum of understanding and consultancy contract was developed and signed by all parties. The IPA covered much of the on-ground logistics (remote-sensor cameras, vehicles, fuel, food, ranger salaries) as part of their operations budget. Salaries from researchers were provided in-kind, and a small budget was agreed for project costs to cover researcher travel, research assistants, DNA and diet analysis, and consumables (batteries, memory cards etc.). The remainder of this paper presents the details and outcomes of this scoping study.

The wartaji project

The project aimed to begin developing an understanding of dingoes residing within the Nyangumarta Warrarn IPA. It focused on establishing indicators of dingo habitat use, population dynamics, ecology, genetics, and diet, and examining interactions with feral cats and foxes. To do this, a 12-month study was developed, focusing on a comprehensive array of remote-sensor cameras, combined with target searches for wartaji scats, observations of signs and traces, and collection of genetic material using hair traps and ad hoc collection of biological samples. This took place over three field trips, lasting ~3–4 days in duration, plus additional ad hoc activities conducted by the rangers across the year.

The placement of cameras and data-collection points (for audio recording, and scat collection) were pre-determined by the research team (see Fig. 1). Initial camera-trap arrays based on best practice, had to be modified during the planning stage after consultation with the rangers and IPA advisory committee, indicating several logistical issues (mostly concerning access and travel time to proposed sites). Approval to conduct the research was granted by the CQUniversity Animal Ethics Committee (number 23633), and a licence obtained to use animals for scientific purposes from the Government of Western Australia (licence number U227/ 2022-2024).

Fig. 1.

A satellite image of the Nyangumarta Warrarn IPA, detailing dirt tracks, and the location of data-collection points.

There were several challenges and factors that helped shape the scope and scale of the project. As mentioned, very little information about the Nyangumarta wartaji population was available. In fact, there have been few studies on wartaji conducted in similar desert habitats (Great Sandy Desert bioregion). A handful of research has been conducted in the surrounding area, but centred around anthropogenic activities such as mining operations (e.g. Smith and Vague 2017; Smith et al. 2019, 2020). A major exception is the impressive body of work conducted by Peter Thomson in Fortescue River (located south-west of the IPA in the Pilbara region) in the early 1990s (Thomson 1992a, 1992b, 1992c, 1992d; Thomson et al. 1992a, 1992b). This is why it was important to conduct a baseline covering a 12-month period to account for seasonal variations and to make as few assumptions as possible about the local wartaji and our approach to their study (e.g. home-range size, family group size, activity schedules, movement patterns). Such an approach enables the detection of any localised differences that may exist.

Accessing the IPA is challenging, owing to its size (it covers more than 28,000 km²), remoteness (located 4 h south of Broome, and 2 h from the nearest community of Bidyadanga), diverse habitats (Great Sandy Desert bioregion, Canning basin, and wetlands and freshwater springs), and limited infrastructure (limited water sources, and access tracks providing limited access to many parts of the IPA). The Nyangumarta Highway (previously referred to as Kidson Track and Wapet Road), is the only east–west unsealed access dissecting the IPA for ~310 km. Other key dirt roads provide limited access to other parts of the IPA, but most areas can be reached only by air (Fig. 1). Unpredictable and harsh weather presents a further challenge, with fieldwork being typically restricted to the period between April and November owing to the wet season. Logistics were further challenged when factoring in ranger rosters that are typically only four successive days (Monday–Thursday), including associated travel time to and from the IPA.

Key to the project was upskilling the Nyangumarta rangers, equipping them with the necessary tools and knowledge to undertake camera-trap surveys, audio recording, observational surveys, and DNA collection (Fig. 2). Additionally, the project facilitated two-way learning, merging cultural and scientific knowledge to inform wartaji management and conservation plans. Last, the project intended to establish a relationship among the research team, Nyangumarta IPA rangers and the community, so as to support an ongoing program focused on the wartaji.

Fig. 2.

(a) A Nyangumarta ranger working with a researcher from CQUniversity. Photo by Ayesha Moss. (b) Nyangumarta rangers installing camera-traps. Photo by Jessica Bolton.

Outcomes, future directions and opportunities

The wartaji project is still in its early stages, yet an intensive year of data collection has already yielded significant outcomes and met project goals and initial work-plan objectives (Fig. 3). Camera-trapping surveys present a suitable approach for baseline studies, given high detectability scores, and what data can be extracted from such detections (e.g. identification, location, activity). During the project, strong relationships have been established, and rangers have been upskilled in various methodologies, including setting up cameras and audio recorders, and enhancing record-keeping and management practices. Additionally, this initial phase has provided a solid baseline understanding of the wartaji population, diet and behaviour, which will serve as a foundation for future research and conservation efforts. Findings from the project will be reported elsewhere.

Fig. 3.

The wartaji project has received positive media attention in a national Indigenous newspaper (Koori Mail, 19 October 2022, p. 10).

The following quotations from an IPA ranger, ranger coordinator, and the Nyangumarta Warrarn Aboriginal Corporation illustrate the success of the wartaji project and collaboration:

Was real good to go and see all of the IPA and check up and learn about dingoes. Great to work with the scientists and showing them Country. Showing them what rangers do. Good to go and try new areas with the cameras. To show them the sites and look for tracks and scats. Dingoes been around forever used for hunting, tracking all of that. When I see dingo on Country it makes me feel happy to see them. Hope to learn more about them and good to see they taking care of the cats. [Elliot Hunter, Nyangumarta Ranger]

Being involved in this ranger/community-led project has been fantastic. Seeing the ranger team take ownership as the project developed and to share their knowledge with other groups hopefully will lead to more Indigenous-led science projects and increase our collective knowledge about dingoes. [Jake Muller, Nyangumarta Ranger Coordinator]

In their ongoing commitment to studying and preserving wartaji, the Nyangumarta rangers will continue to systematically and opportunistically gather information, for example, by maintaining their extensive camera-trapping network, collecting wartaji scats for dietary analysis, and obtaining biological samples (e.g. bones, and DNA material) when possible. These activities, along with maintaining accurate records, are fundamental to building a comprehensive wartaji database, which is crucial for future research and for developing and evaluating management strategies. The rangers aim to disseminate their findings in culturally appropriate ways for the Nyangumarta community, other IPA ranger groups, and to the scientific community, to enhance awareness and understanding of wartaji and their work. The Nyangumarta people are well placed to contribute to our understanding of wartaji in this bioregion.

Looking ahead, the IPA has numerous opportunities to expand its research and collaborations. The rangers prioritise developing a long-term wartaji-monitoring framework. They seek to create evidence-based management and conservation plans that focus on the cultural significance of wartaji, assess the impact of invasive species, and protect threatened species. A major initiative planned for the near future involves equipping wartaji with GPS collars to monitor their movements and behaviours. Such activities will continue strengthening the ties between academic institutions and practical conservation efforts. Expanding this tracking to include interactions among wartaji, foxes, and cats could provide valuable insights essential for managing these species and protecting threatened local wildlife (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

A wartaji was captured holding a dead cat in its mouth. Insights such as these, and from diet analysis, are vital for understanding the dynamics between wartaji and introduced predators.

The IPA plans to extend its research network by partnering with neighbouring IPAs and engaging with local pastoralists. This expansion aims to broaden the scope of the study and foster cooperative wildlife management strategies, potentially reducing reliance on lethal control methods and towards the use of non-lethal approaches. Initiating discussions with local mining companies is also important, because this could lead to new employment opportunities for the community in areas such as wartaji management (e.g. mitigating wartaji–human conflict) and educational roles.

The rangers are particularly enthusiastic about involving their community more deeply in their conservation efforts. They encourage local schools to participate in ‘citizen science’ projects, which could include activities such as analysing camera-trap data, tracking wartaji using satellite collars, and participating in naming and studying individual dingoes. Local art competitions may encourage storytelling and the personal connection by the community towards wartaji. This approach not only encourages the recording of cultural knowledge and histories but also fosters a deeper connection between the community and wartaji.

To sustain these initiatives, the IPA will actively seek funding from a range of sources, including local mining companies and research grant opportunities. With the necessary financial support, they can continue integrating scientific research with traditional knowledge and practices, thereby enhancing the conservation of wartaji and the community’s engagement with this iconic culturally significant species.

Conclusions

The wartaji project exemplifies the effectiveness of Traditional owner-led conservation and ecological research, highlighting the cultural and ecological significance of wartaji. This initiative was designed to expand knowledge within the community and build the capacities of local rangers for long-term management. The collaboration with academic and non-academic researchers promise to enhance this conservation effort through mutual learning, showing the value of combining traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches. The success of such projects underscores the importance of IPAs and Indigenous Rangers Programs, which are vital for facilitating these effective partnerships and sustaining conservation efforts.