Effects of wet season mineral nutrition on chital deer distribution in northern Queensland
Kurt Watter
A C , Greg S. Baxter A , Tony Pople B and Peter J. Murray A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld 4343, Australia.
B Biosecurity Queensland, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Brisbane, Qld 4109, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: watter@bigpond.net.au
Wildlife Research 46(6) 499-508 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR19039
Submitted: 20 November 2018 Accepted: 17 May 2019 Published: 23 August 2019
Abstract
Context: To predict the success of an invasive species, it is important to understand the habitat factors that influence its distribution and abundance. In northern Queensland, chital deer (Axis axis) is an introduced ungulate that occupies specific areas over periods of several decades.
Aims: The aim was to compare mineral concentrations in the soil and food plants of areas that chital occupy in high and low densities, and to assess mineral levels in blood sera.
Methods: Faecal counts were used to identify areas of high and low chital density. Samples of soil and food plants were analysed from high- and low-density areas to determine the concentrations of 10 minerals from 32 collection sites. Laboratory examination was conducted on serum collected from 46 culled chital to evaluate mineral concentrations.
Key results: Chital density varied markedly, with higher mineral concentrations found in soil and food plants in areas of high chital density compared with low-density locations. Average-ranked analyses indicated soil phosphorus levels were significantly (1.5×) higher in areas of high chital density, together with levels of Na (3.4×), Mg (2.3×), Mn (2.1×) and Fe (1.3×) in grasses that comprise more than 90% of the wet season (November to March) diet. Based on minimum requirements for ruminants, the concentrations of Na and Zn in grasses were suboptimal for chital. Serum Zn concentrations suggest a marginal deficiency in most of the animals sampled.
Conclusions: Mineral requirements of ungulates are such that deficiencies in availability of key nutrients may be sufficient to influence density and distribution. If there are deficiencies, the principal determinants of habitat selection are likely to be P in soil, and Na and Zn in food plants. Deficiencies of both Na and Zn in the diet may limit growth and reproductive output.
Implications: Mineral adequacy in the diet of chital may be a determinant of their current distribution and a predictor of the habitats they may successfully colonise in the future. Recognition of mineral nutrition as a habitat predictor may aid in the management of chital as a keystone species where it is native on the Indian subcontinent, and as an invasive species where it has become naturalised.
Additional keywords: Axis axis, mineral requirements, phosphorus, sodium, soil, zinc.
References
Aerts, R., and Chapin, F. S., III (1999). The mineral nutrition of wild plants revisited: a re-evaluation of processes and patterns. In ‘Advances in Ecological Research,’ Vol. 30. (Eds A. H. Fitter, and D. G. Raffaelli) pp. 1–67. (Elsevier: Amsterdam.)Agricultural Research Council and Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux (1980). ‘The Nutrient Requirements of Ruminant Livestock: Technical Review.’ (Published on behalf of the Agricultural Research Council by the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux: Farnham Royal, UK.)
Ahern, C. R. (1994). The soil fertility of central and north-east Queensland grazing lands. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane.
Augustine, D. J., McNaughton, S. J., and Frank, D. A. (2003). Feedbacks between soil nutrients and large herbivores in a managed savanna ecosystem. Ecological Applications 13, 1325–1337.
| Feedbacks between soil nutrients and large herbivores in a managed savanna ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baker, D. E., and Eldershaw, V. J. (1993). Interpreting soil analysis for agricultural land use in Queensland. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane.
Barrette, C. (1985). Antler eating and antler growth in wild Axis deer. Mammalia 49, 491–500.
| Antler eating and antler growth in wild Axis deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bell, R. H. (1982). The effect of soil nutrient availability on community structure in African ecosystems. In ‘Ecology of Tropical Savannas’. (Eds B. J. Huntley, and B. H. Walker.) pp. 193–216. (Springer: Berlin.)
Belovsky, G. E., and Jordan, P. A. (1981). Sodium dynamics and adaptations of a moose population. Journal of Mammalogy 62, 613–621.
| Sodium dynamics and adaptations of a moose population.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ben-Shahar, R., and Coe, M. J. (1992). The relationships between soil factors, grass nutrients and the foraging behaviour of wildebeest and zebra. Oecologia 90, 422–428.
| The relationships between soil factors, grass nutrients and the foraging behaviour of wildebeest and zebra.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28313531PubMed |
Beutler, E. (1978). The red cell. In ‘Hemolytic Anemia in Disorders of Red Cell Metabolism’. (Ed. E. Beutler.) pp. 1–21. (Springer: Berlin.)
Blair-West, J., Coghlan, J., Denton, D., Nelson, J., Orchard, E., Scoggins, B., Wright, R., Myers, K., and Junqueira, C. (1968). Physiological, morphological and behavioural adaptation to a sodium deficient environment by wild native Australian and introduced species of animals. Nature 217, 922–928.
| Physiological, morphological and behavioural adaptation to a sodium deficient environment by wild native Australian and introduced species of animals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 5642846PubMed |
Blaney, B., Gartner, R., and Head, T. (1982). The effects of oxalate in tropical grasses on calcium, phosphorus and magnesium availability to cattle. The Journal of Agricultural Science 99, 533–539.
| The effects of oxalate in tropical grasses on calcium, phosphorus and magnesium availability to cattle.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bortolussi, G., McIvor, J. G., Hodgkinson, J. J., Coffey, S. G., and Holmes, C. R. (2005). The northern Australian beef industry, a snapshot. 2. Breeding herd performance and management. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 45, 1075–1091.
| The northern Australian beef industry, a snapshot. 2. Breeding herd performance and management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brady, N. C., and Weil, R. R. (2017). ‘The Nature and Properties of Soils,’ 15th edn. (Pearson: Boston.)
Brennan, M., and Pople, T. (2016). Chital deer – an expanding problem in north Queensland. In ‘Pest Animal Symposium’, November 2016, Townsville, Queensland.
Bryant, K., and Harms, B. (2016). Soil resources of the Spyglass Beef Research Facility. Queensland Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation, Brisbane.
Burrows, W., Carter, J., Scanlan, J., and Anderson, E. (1990). Management of savannas for livestock production in north-east Australia: contrasts across the tree-grass continuum. Journal of Biogeography 17, 503–512.
| Management of savannas for livestock production in north-east Australia: contrasts across the tree-grass continuum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Campbell, D., Swanson, G., and Sales, J. (2004). Methodological insights: comparing the precision and cost‐effectiveness of faecal pellet group count methods. Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 1185–1196.
| Methodological insights: comparing the precision and cost‐effectiveness of faecal pellet group count methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ceacero, F., Landete-Castillejos, T., García, A. J., Estévez, J. A., Martinez, A., Calatayud, A., Gaspar-López, E., and Gallego, L. (2009). Free-choice mineral consumption in Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) response to diet deficiencies. Livestock Science 122, 345–348.
| Free-choice mineral consumption in Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) response to diet deficiencies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coates, D. (1994). The effect of phosphorus as fertiliser or supplement on pasture and cattle productivity in the semi-arid tropics of north Queensland. Tropical Grasslands 28, 90–108.
Cooper, S. M., and Owen-Smith, N. (1985). Condensed tannins deter feeding by browsing ruminants in a South African savanna. Oecologia 67, 142–146.
| Condensed tannins deter feeding by browsing ruminants in a South African savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28309860PubMed |
Creel, S., Winnie, J., Maxwell, B., Hamlin, K., and Creel, M. (2005). Elk alter habitat selection as an antipredator response to wolves. Ecology 86, 3387–3397.
| Elk alter habitat selection as an antipredator response to wolves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dryden, G. M. (2008). ‘Animal Nutrition Science.’ (CAB International: Wallingford, UK.)
English, A. W., and Lepherd, E. E. (1981). The haematology and serum biochemistry of wild fallow deer (Dama dama) in New South Wales. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 17, 289–295.
| The haematology and serum biochemistry of wild fallow deer (Dama dama) in New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 7241715PubMed |
Estévez, J. A., Landete-Castillejos, T., García, A. J., Ceacero, F., Martínez, A., Gaspar-López, E., Calatayud, A., and Gallego, L. (2010). Seasonal variations in plant mineral content and free-choice minerals consumed by deer. Animal Production Science 50, 177–185.
| Seasonal variations in plant mineral content and free-choice minerals consumed by deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flueck, W. T. (1994). Effect of trace elements on population dynamics: selenium deficiency in free‐ranging black‐tailed deer. Ecology 75, 807–812.
| Effect of trace elements on population dynamics: selenium deficiency in free‐ranging black‐tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forsyth, D. M., Barker, R. J., Morriss, G., and Scroggie, M. P. (2007). Modeling the relationship between fecal pellet indices and deer density. The Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 964–970.
| Modeling the relationship between fecal pellet indices and deer density.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gambín, P., Ceacero, F., Garcia, A. J., Landete-Castillejos, T., and Gallego, L. (2017). Patterns of antler consumption reveal osteophagia as a natural mineral resource in key periods for red deer (Cervus elaphus). European Journal of Wildlife Research 63, 39.
| Patterns of antler consumption reveal osteophagia as a natural mineral resource in key periods for red deer (Cervus elaphus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grace, N., and Wilson, P. (2002). Trace element metabolism, dietary requirements, diagnosis and prevention of deficiencies in deer. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 50, 252–259.
| Trace element metabolism, dietary requirements, diagnosis and prevention of deficiencies in deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16032281PubMed |
Grasman, B. T., and Hellgren, E. C. (1993). Phosophorus nutrition in white‐tailed deer: nutrient balance, physiological responses, and antler growth. Ecology 74, 2279–2296.
| Phosophorus nutrition in white‐tailed deer: nutrient balance, physiological responses, and antler growth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hall, J. O. (2011). Diagnosing common vitamin and mineral deficiencies in cattle. In ‘Proceedings of the Oklahoma Veterinary Medical Association 96th Annual Convention’.
Herdt, T. H., and Hoff, B. (2011). The use of blood analysis to evaluate trace mineral status in ruminant livestock. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice 27, 255–283.
| The use of blood analysis to evaluate trace mineral status in ruminant livestock.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21575769PubMed |
Hidiroglou, M. (1979). Trace element deficiencies and fertility in ruminants – review. Journal of Dairy Science 62, 1195–1206.
| Trace element deficiencies and fertility in ruminants – review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 387829PubMed |
Holroyd, R., Allan, P., and O’Rourke, P. (1977). Effect of pasture type and supplementary feeding on the reproductive performance of cattle in the dry tropics of north Queensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 17, 197–206.
| Effect of pasture type and supplementary feeding on the reproductive performance of cattle in the dry tropics of north Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jesser, P. (2005). Deer in Queensland. Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Brisbane.
Jones, R. (1990). Phosphorus and beef production in northern Australia. 1. Phosphorus and pasture productivity – a review. Tropical Grasslands 24, 131–139.
Judson, G., and McFarlane, J. (1998). Mineral disorders in grazing livestock and the usefulness of soil and plant analysis in the assessment of these disorders. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38, 707–723.
| Mineral disorders in grazing livestock and the usefulness of soil and plant analysis in the assessment of these disorders.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kabata-Pendias, A. (2004). Soil–plant transfer of trace elements – an environmental issue. Geoderma 122, 143–149.
| Soil–plant transfer of trace elements – an environmental issue.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kennedy, J. F., Jenks, J. A., Jones, R. L., and Jenkins, K. J. (1995). Characteristics of mineral licks used by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). American Midland Naturalist 134, 324–331.
| Characteristics of mineral licks used by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kerridge, P., Andrew, C., and Murtha, G. (1972). Plant nutrient status of soils of the Atherton Tableland, north Queensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 12, 618–627.
| Plant nutrient status of soils of the Atherton Tableland, north Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Khan, J. (1994). Food habits of ungulates in dry tropical forests of Gir Lion Sanctuary, Gujarat, India. Acta Theriologica 39, 185–193.
| Food habits of ungulates in dry tropical forests of Gir Lion Sanctuary, Gujarat, India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kincaid, R. (2000). Assessment of trace mineral status of ruminants: a review. Journal of Animal Science 77, 1–10.
| Assessment of trace mineral status of ruminants: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Masters, D. G. (1996). Mineral deficiency problems in grazing sheep-an overview. ACIAR Monograph Series 37, 1–14.
McCosker, T., and Winks, L. (1994). Phosphorus nutrition of beef cattle in northern Australia. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane.
McDowell, L. R. (1985). ‘Nutrition of Grazing Ruminants in Warm Climates.’ (Academic Press: Orlando, FL.)
McDowell, L. R., and Arthington, J. D. (2005). ‘Minerals for Grazing Ruminants in Tropical Regions.’ (Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida: Gainesville, FL.)
McIvor, J. (2012). Sustainable management of the Burdekin grazing lands – a technical guide of options for stocking rate management, pasture spelling, infrastructure development and prescribed burning to optimise animal production, profitability, land condition and water quality outcomes. Queensland Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Brisbane. Available at http://era.daf.qld.gov.au/id/eprint/5803/1/BurdekinGrazing_final-04a.pdf [verified May 2019].
McLennan, S., Dunster, P., O’Rourke, P., and Murphy, G. (1981). Comparison of dry season urea supplements containing salt, sulfur or molasses for steers grazing native pasture in the dry tropics of northern Queensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 21, 457–463.
| Comparison of dry season urea supplements containing salt, sulfur or molasses for steers grazing native pasture in the dry tropics of northern Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McNaughton, S. (1988). Mineral nutrition and spatial concentrations of African ungulates. Nature 334, 343–345.
| Mineral nutrition and spatial concentrations of African ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 3393225PubMed |
McNaughton, S. J. (1990). Mineral nutrition and seasonal movements of African migratory ungulates. Nature 345, 613–615.
| Mineral nutrition and seasonal movements of African migratory ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Meddis, R. (1984). ‘Statistics Using Ranks: A Unified Approach.’ (Blackwell: Oxford, UK.)
Moriarty, A. (2004). The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia. Wildlife Research 31, 291–299.
| The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
National Academies of Sciences and Medicine (2016). ‘Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle.’ (National Academies Press: Washington, DC.)
Osunkoya, O. O., and Perrett, C. (2011). Lantana camara L.(Verbenaceae) invasion effects on soil physicochemical properties. Biology and Fertility of Soils 47, 349–355.
| Lantana camara L.(Verbenaceae) invasion effects on soil physicochemical properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paynter, D. I. (1996). Diagnosis of mineral deficiencies. ACIAR Monograph Series 37, 45–56.
Perrett, C., Osunkoya, O. O., and Clark, C. (2012). Cat’s claw creeper vine, Macfadyena unguis-cati (Bignoniaceae), invasion impacts: comparative leaf nutrient content and effects on soil physicochemical properties. Australian Journal of Botany 60, 539–548.
| Cat’s claw creeper vine, Macfadyena unguis-cati (Bignoniaceae), invasion impacts: comparative leaf nutrient content and effects on soil physicochemical properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Provenza, F. D. (1995). Postingestive feedback as an elementary determinant of food preference and intake in ruminants. Rangeland Ecology & Management/Journal of Range Management Archives 48, 2–17.
Rahman, D. A., Gonzalez, G., Haryono, M., Muhtarom, A., Firdaus, A. Y., and Aulagnier, S. (2017). Factors affecting seasonal habitat use, and predicted range of two tropical deer in Indonesian rainforest. Acta Oecologica 82, 41–51.
| Factors affecting seasonal habitat use, and predicted range of two tropical deer in Indonesian rainforest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robbins, C. (2012). ‘Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition.’ (Elsevier: Amsterdam.)
Seagle, S. W., and McNaughton, S. (1992). Spatial variation in forage nutrient concentrations and the distribution of Serengeti grazing ungulates. Landscape Ecology 7, 229–241.
| Spatial variation in forage nutrient concentrations and the distribution of Serengeti grazing ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Suresh, C., Das, A., Katole, S., Saini, M., and Swarup, D. (2013). Effect of concentrate supplementation on feed consumption, nutrient utilization and blood metabolite profile in captive spotted deer (Axis axis) fed oat (Avena sativa) and berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) fodders based diet. Zoo Biology 32, 195–203.
| Effect of concentrate supplementation on feed consumption, nutrient utilization and blood metabolite profile in captive spotted deer (Axis axis) fed oat (Avena sativa) and berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) fodders based diet.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23349033PubMed |
Ternouth, J. (1990). Phosphorus and beef production in northern Australia. 3. Phosphorus in cattle – a review. Tropical Grasslands 24, 159–169.
WallisDeVries, M. F. (1996). Nutritional limitations of free-ranging cattle: the importance of habitat quality. Journal of Applied Ecology 33, 688–702.
| Nutritional limitations of free-ranging cattle: the importance of habitat quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
WallisDeVries, M. F. (1998). Habitat quality and the performance of large herbivores. In ‘Grazing and Conservation Management. Conservation Biology Series, Vol. 11’. (Eds M. F. WallisDeVries, S. E. Van Wieren, and J. P. Bakker) (Springer: Dordrecht)
Weeks, H. P., and Kirkpatrick, C. M. (1976). Adaptations of white-tailed deer to naturally occurring sodium deficiencies. The Journal of Wildlife Management 40, 610–625.
| Adaptations of white-tailed deer to naturally occurring sodium deficiencies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
