Intense predation of non-colonial, ground-nesting bird eggs by corvid and mammalian predators
Kasun B. Ekanayake A B , Desley A. Whisson A , Laura X. L. Tan A and Michael A. Weston A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Deakin University, Geelong, Australia. School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, (Burwood Campus). 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Vic. 3125, Australia.
B Corresponding author. Email: kbekanay@deakin.edu.au
Wildlife Research 42(6) 518-528 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR15080
Submitted: 20 April 2015 Accepted: 4 October 2015 Published: 9 November 2015
Abstract
Context: Loss of eggs to predators is a major cause of reproductive failure among birds. It is especially pronounced among ground-nesting birds because their eggs are accessible to a wide range of predators. Few studies document the main causes of clutch fate of ground-nesting birds.
Aims: The main objective of the present study was to identify the major egg predator of red-capped plovers (Charadrius ruficapillus). We also investigated the effectiveness of the following two primary strategies available to the plovers to avoid egg predation: (1) the placement of clutches under vegetative cover and (2) avoiding predators by nesting outside the peak season of predator occurrence.
Methods: Remote-sensing cameras were deployed on plover nests to identify egg predators and nests were monitored over four breeding seasons to document reproductive success and fate. An experiment using false clutches with model eggs investigated the influence of nest cover on the risk of egg predation throughout the year. Line-transect surveys were conducted to estimate the abundance of egg predators in and around the wetlands.
Key results: The little raven (Corvus mellori) was the major egg predator identified in 78.6% of red-capped plover clutches and in 92.4% of false clutches that were camera-monitored. The hatching success of plover eggs was not influenced by nest cover (P = 0.36), but model egg survival in false clutches improved significantly with the presence of nest cover (P = 0.02). The abundance of little ravens increased during the plover breeding season and was highly negatively correlated with false clutch survival (rpearson = –0.768, P = 0.005).
Conclusions: Little ravens were the major predator of red-capped plover eggs and their abundance increased significantly during the plover breeding season. Any influence of nest cover on hatching success of eggs may have been masked by the extremely high rate of egg loss associated with the increased little raven abundance during the plover breeding season.
Implications: The high rate of egg predation is likely to have negative consequences on the local red-capped plover population, suggesting management is warranted. Little raven populations have expanded and, thus, their impact as egg predators needs to be investigated especially on threatened species.
Additional keywords: Charadrius, Corvus, cover, predator, season, shorebird.
References
Amat, J. A., and Masero, J. A. (2004). Predation risk on incubating adults constrains the choice of thermally favourable nest sites in a plover. Animal Behaviour 67, 293–300.| Predation risk on incubating adults constrains the choice of thermally favourable nest sites in a plover.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Antos, M. J., Ehmke, G. C., Tzaros, C. L., and Weston, M. A. (2007). Unauthorised human use of an urban coastal wetland sanctuary: current and future patterns. Landscape and Urban Planning 80, 173–183.
| Unauthorised human use of an urban coastal wetland sanctuary: current and future patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Archer, A. L. (2001). Control of the Indian house crow Corvus splendens in eastern Africa. The Ostrich 15, 147–152.
Baines, D., Moss, R., and Dugan, D. (2004). Capercaillie breeding success in relation to forest habitat and predator abundance. Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 59–71.
| Capercaillie breeding success in relation to forest habitat and predator abundance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barbaree, B. A., Nelson, S. K., Dugger, B. D., Roby, D. D., Carter, H. R., Whitworth, D. L., and Newman, S. H. (2014). Nesting ecology of marbled murrelets at a remote mainland fjord in southeast Alaska. The Condor 116, 173–184.
| Nesting ecology of marbled murrelets at a remote mainland fjord in southeast Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barnett, A., and Semmens, J. M. (2012). Sequential movement into coastal habitats and high spatial overlap of predator and prey suggest high predation pressure in protected areas. Oikos 121, 882–890.
| Sequential movement into coastal habitats and high spatial overlap of predator and prey suggest high predation pressure in protected areas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
BirdLife Australia (2015). ‘The Atlas of Australian birds and Birdata.’ (BirdLife Australia: Melbourne.) Available at https://birdata.com.au/about_atlas.vm [Accessed 16 March 2015]
Bourgeois, K., Dromzée, S., and Vidal, E. (2014). Relationships between nest-cavity and mate selection, reproductive performance and fidelity in the Mediterranean endemic Yelkouan shearwater Puffinus yelkouan. Acta Ornithologica 49, 9–22.
| Relationships between nest-cavity and mate selection, reproductive performance and fidelity in the Mediterranean endemic Yelkouan shearwater Puffinus yelkouan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brook, B. W., Sodhi, N. S., Soh, M. C. K., and Lim, H. C. (2003). Abundance and projected control of invasive house crows in Singapore. The Journal of Wildlife Management 67, 808–817.
| Abundance and projected control of invasive house crows in Singapore.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buler, J. J., and Hamilton, R. B. (2000). Predation of natural and artificial nests in a southern pine forest. The Auk 117, 739–747.
| Predation of natural and artificial nests in a southern pine forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burnham, K. P., and Anderson, D. R. (2002). ‘Model Selection and Multimodel Inference: a Practical Information-theoretic Approach.’ (Springer Science & Business Media: New York.)
Cardilini, A. P., Ekanayake, K. B., and Weston, M. A. (2012). Little ravens ‘Corvus mellori’ hunt, kill and eat individuals of two species of shorebird. The Victorian Naturalist 129, 22–24.
Cardilini, A. P. A., Weston, M. A., Nimmo, D. G., Dann, P., and Sherman, C. D. H. (2013). Surviving in sprawling suburbs: suburban environments represent high quality breeding habitat for a widespread shorebird. Landscape and Urban Planning 115, 72–80.
| Surviving in sprawling suburbs: suburban environments represent high quality breeding habitat for a widespread shorebird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Caswell Stoddard, M., Marshall, K. L. A., and Kilner, R. M. (2011). Imperfectly camouflaged avian eggs: artefact or adaptation? Avian Biology Research 4, 196–213.
| Imperfectly camouflaged avian eggs: artefact or adaptation?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clua, É., and Grosvalet, F. (2001). Mixed-species feeding aggregation of dolphins, large tunas and seabirds in the Azores. Aquatic Living Resources 14, 11–18.
| Mixed-species feeding aggregation of dolphins, large tunas and seabirds in the Azores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conkling, T. J., Pope, T. L., Smith, K. N., Mathewson, H. A., Morrison, M. L., Wilkins, R. N., and Cain, J. W. (2012). Black-capped vireo nest predator assemblage and predictors for nest predation. The Journal of Wildlife Management 76, 1401–1411.
| Black-capped vireo nest predator assemblage and predictors for nest predation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cox, R., Baker, S. E., Macdonald, D. W., and Berdoy, M. (2004). Protecting egg prey from carrion crows: the potential of aversive conditioning. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 87, 325–342.
| Protecting egg prey from carrion crows: the potential of aversive conditioning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Davison, W. B., and Bollinger, E. (2000). Predation rates on real and artificial nests of grassland birds. The Auk 117, 147–153.
| Predation rates on real and artificial nests of grassland birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dwernychuk, L. W., and Boag, D. A. (1972). How vegetative cover protects duck nests from egg-eating birds. The Journal of Wildlife Management 36, 955–958.
| How vegetative cover protects duck nests from egg-eating birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eggers, S., Griesser, M., Andersson, T., and Ekman, J. (2005). Nest predation and habitat change interact to influence Siberian jay numbers. Oikos 111, 150–158.
| Nest predation and habitat change interact to influence Siberian jay numbers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ekanayake K. B. Weston M. A. Nimmo D. G. Maguire G. S. Endler J. A. Küpper C. 2015
Ekanayake K. B. Weston M. A. Dann P. Sutherland D. R. 2015
Emery, N. J., and Clayton, N. S. (2004). The mentality of crows: convergent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes. Science 306, 1903–1907.
| The mentality of crows: convergent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXhtVCqtbrK&md5=6e84603b9ad137461db4ef350d80e3e6CAS | 15591194PubMed |
Fletcher, K., Aebischer, N. J., Baines, D., Foster, R., and Hoodless, A. N. (2010). Changes in breeding success and abundance of ground-nesting moorland birds in relation to the experimental deployment of legal predator control. Journal of Applied Ecology 47, 263–272.
| Changes in breeding success and abundance of ground-nesting moorland birds in relation to the experimental deployment of legal predator control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fontaine, J. J., and Martin, T. E. (2006). Parent birds assess nest predation risk and adjust their reproductive strategies. Ecology Letters 9, 428–434.
| Parent birds assess nest predation risk and adjust their reproductive strategies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD283jsFKmsw%3D%3D&md5=4e3dd11105f6a24e2d463c046461c4b6CAS | 16623728PubMed |
Gabriel, P. O., and Golightly, R. T. (2014). Aversive conditioning of Steller’s jays to improve marbled murrelet nest survival. The Journal of Wildlife Management 78, 894–903.
| Aversive conditioning of Steller’s jays to improve marbled murrelet nest survival.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grant, T. A., Shaffer, T. L., Madden, E. M., Pietz, P. J., and Johnson, D. H. (2005). Time-specific variation in passerine nest survival: new insights into old questions. The Auk 122, 661–672.
| Time-specific variation in passerine nest survival: new insights into old questions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Izawa, E.-I., and Watanabe, S. (2011). Observational learning in the large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos): effect of demonstrator-observer dominance relationship. Interaction Studies: Social Behaviour and Communication in Biological and Artificial Systems 12, 281–303.
| Observational learning in the large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos): effect of demonstrator-observer dominance relationship.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Klinka, D. R., and Reimchen, T. E. (2002). Nocturnal and diurnal foraging behaviour of brown bears (Ursus arctos) on a salmon stream in coastal British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Zoology 80, 1317–1322.
| Nocturnal and diurnal foraging behaviour of brown bears (Ursus arctos) on a salmon stream in coastal British Columbia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krama, T., Bērziņš, A., Rytkönen, S., Rantala, M. J., Wheatcroft, D., and Krams, I. (2012). Linking anti-predator behaviour and habitat quality: group effect in nest defence of a passerine bird. Acta Ethologica 15, 127–134.
| Linking anti-predator behaviour and habitat quality: group effect in nest defence of a passerine bird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Latif, Q. S., Heath, S. K., and Ballard, G. (2012). The nest predator assemblage for songbirds in Mono Lake Basin riparian habitats. Western North American Naturalist 72, 276–287.
| The nest predator assemblage for songbirds in Mono Lake Basin riparian habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liebezeit, J. R., Smith, P. A., Lanctot, R. B., Schekkerman, H., Tulp, I., Kendall, S. J., Tracy, D. M., Rodrigues, R. J., Meltofte, H., Robinson, J. A., Gratto-Trevor, C., McCaffery, B. J., Morse, J., and Zack, S. W. (2007). Assessing the development of shorebird eggs using the flotation method: species-specific and generalized regression models. The Condor 109, 32–47.
| Assessing the development of shorebird eggs using the flotation method: species-specific and generalized regression models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lomas, S. C., Whisson, D. A., Maguire, G. S., Tan, L. X., Guay, P.-J., and Weston, M. A. (2014). The influence of cover on nesting red-capped plovers: a trade-off between thermoregulation and predation risk? The Victorian Naturalist 131, 115–127.
Maguire, G. S., Stojanovic, D., and Weston, M. A. (2009). Conditioned taste aversion reduces fox depredation on model eggs on beaches. Wildlife Research 36, 702–708.
| Conditioned taste aversion reduces fox depredation on model eggs on beaches.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mahon, P. S. (2009). Targeted control of widespread exotic species for biodiversity conservation: the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in New South Wales, Australia. Ecological Management & Restoration 10, S59–S69.
| Targeted control of widespread exotic species for biodiversity conservation: the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Manzer, D. L., and Hannon, S. J. (2005). Relating grouse nest success and corvid density to habitat: a multi-scale approach. The Journal of Wildlife Management 69, 110–123.
| Relating grouse nest success and corvid density to habitat: a multi-scale approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marchant, S., and Higgins, P. J. (1993). ‘Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 2: Raptors to Lapwings.’ (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)
Marzluff, J. M., and Angell, T. (2007). ‘In the Company of Crows and Ravens.’ (Yale University Press: New Haven, CT.)
Marzluff, J. M., and Neatherlin, E. (2006). Corvid response to human settlements and campgrounds: causes, consequences, and challenges for conservation. Biological Conservation 130, 301–314.
| Corvid response to human settlements and campgrounds: causes, consequences, and challenges for conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Massaro, M., Stanbury, M., and Briskie, J. V. (2013). Nest site selection by the endangered black robin increases vulnerability to predation by an invasive bird. Animal Conservation 16, 404–411.
| Nest site selection by the endangered black robin increases vulnerability to predation by an invasive bird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Matsui, S., and Takagi, M. (2012). Predation risk of eggs and nestlings relative to nest-site characteristics of the bull-headed shrike Lanius bucephalus. The Ibis 154, 621–625.
| Predation risk of eggs and nestlings relative to nest-site characteristics of the bull-headed shrike Lanius bucephalus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKinnon, L., and Bêty, J. (2009). Effect of camera monitoring on survival rates of high-Arctic shorebird nests. Journal of Field Ornithology 80, 280–288.
| Effect of camera monitoring on survival rates of high-Arctic shorebird nests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mezquida, E. T., and Marone, L. (2003). Are results of artificial nest experiments a valid indicator of success of natural nests? The Wilson Bulletin 115, 270–276.
| Are results of artificial nest experiments a valid indicator of success of natural nests?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moore, R. P., and Robinson, W. D. (2004). Artificial bird nests, external validity, and bias in ecological field studies. Ecology 85, 1562–1567.
| Artificial bird nests, external validity, and bias in ecological field studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oravcova, V., Zurek, L., Townsend, A., Clark, A. B., Ellis, J. C., Cizek, A., and Literak, I. (2014). American crows as carriers of vancomycin-resistant enterococci with vanA gene. Environmental Microbiology 16, 939–949.
| American crows as carriers of vancomycin-resistant enterococci with vanA gene.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXlsF2jtrc%3D&md5=dabe6f6a808af69e682cd30802d4f289CAS | 23919480PubMed |
Page, G. W., Stenzel, L. E., Winkler, D. W., and Swarth, C. W. (1983). Spacing out at Mono Lake: breeding success, nest density, and predation in the snowy plover. The Auk 100, 13–24.
| Spacing out at Mono Lake: breeding success, nest density, and predation in the snowy plover.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Palomino, D., and Carrascal, L. M. (2007). Threshold distances to nearby cities and roads influence the bird community of a mosaic landscape. Biological Conservation 140, 100–109.
| Threshold distances to nearby cities and roads influence the bird community of a mosaic landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parsons, K. C., and Chao, J. (1983). Nest cover and chick survival in herring gulls (Larus argentatus). Colonial Waterbirds 6, 154–159.
| Nest cover and chick survival in herring gulls (Larus argentatus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peery, M. Z., and Henry, R. W. (2010). Recovering marbled murrelets via corvid management: a population viability analysis approach. Biological Conservation 143, 2414–2424.
| Recovering marbled murrelets via corvid management: a population viability analysis approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Persons, P. E. (1995). ‘Western Snowy Plover Population Size and Nesting Success in 1994 at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California.’ (US Fish and Wildlife Service: Ventura, CA.)
Pierce, R. J. (1986). Differences in susceptibility to predation during nesting between pied and black stilts (Himantopus spp.). The Auk 103, 273–280. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4087079 [Accessed 07 September 2015]
Price, C. J., and Banks, P. B. (2012). Exploiting olfactory learning in alien rats to protect birds’ eggs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 109, 19304–19309.
| Exploiting olfactory learning in alien rats to protect birds’ eggs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhvVagtrbI&md5=50e5397a2f23e3291298053b6ee50e5fCAS |
Rees, J. D., Webb, J. K., Crowther, M. S., and Letnic, M. (2015a). Carrion subsidies provided by fishermen increase predation of beach-nesting bird nests by facultative scavengers. Animal Conservation 18, 44–49.
| Carrion subsidies provided by fishermen increase predation of beach-nesting bird nests by facultative scavengers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rees, J. D., Webb, J. K., Crowther, M. S., and Letnic, M. (2015b). Ravens are a key threat to beach-nesting birds. Australian Field Ornithology 32, 100–107. http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=237537248015265;res=IELHSS [Accessed 07 September 2015]
Ricklefs, R. E. (1969). An analysis of nesting mortality in birds. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 9, 1–48.
| An analysis of nesting mortality in birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rogers, K. G., Rogers, D. I., and Weston, M. A. (2014). Prolonged and flexible primary moult overlaps extensively with breeding in beach-nesting hooded plovers Thinornis rubricollis. The Ibis 156, 840–849.
| Prolonged and flexible primary moult overlaps extensively with breeding in beach-nesting hooded plovers Thinornis rubricollis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rollinson, N., and Brooks, R. J. (2007). Marking nests increases the frequency of nest depredation in a northern population of painted turtles (Chrysemys picta). Journal of Herpetology 41, 174–176.
| Marking nests increases the frequency of nest depredation in a northern population of painted turtles (Chrysemys picta).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Salathe, T. (1987). Crow predation on coot eggs: effects of investigator disturbance, nest cover and predator learning. Ardea 75, 221–229.
Sánchez-Oliver, J. S., Rey Benayas, J. M., and Carrascal, L. M. (2014). Local habitat and landscape influence predation of bird nests on afforested Mediterranean cropland. Acta Oecologica 58, 35–43.
| Local habitat and landscape influence predation of bird nests on afforested Mediterranean cropland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Santisteban, L., Sieving, K. E., and Avery, M. L. (2002). Use of sensory cues by fish crows Corvus ossifragus preying on artificial bird nests. Journal of Avian Biology 33, 245–252.
| Use of sensory cues by fish crows Corvus ossifragus preying on artificial bird nests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schneider, N. A., and Griesser, M. (2013). Incubating females use dynamic risk assessment to evaluate the risk posed by different predators. Behavioral Ecology 24, 47–52.
| Incubating females use dynamic risk assessment to evaluate the risk posed by different predators.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Seed, A., Emery, N., and Clayton, N. (2009). Intelligence in corvids and apes: a case of convergent evolution? Ethology 115, 401–420.
| Intelligence in corvids and apes: a case of convergent evolution?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Segura, L. N., Masson, D. A., and Gantchoff, M. G. (2012). Microhabitat nest cover effect on nest survival of the red-crested cardinal. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 124, 506–512.
| Microhabitat nest cover effect on nest survival of the red-crested cardinal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sherley, R. B., Barham, B. J., Barham, P. J., Leshoro, T. M., and Underhill, L. G. (2012). Artificial nests enhance the breeding productivity of African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) on Robben Island, South Africa. Emu 112, 97–106.
| Artificial nests enhance the breeding productivity of African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) on Robben Island, South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith, P. A., Tulp, I., Schekkerman, H., Gilchrist, H. G., and Forbes, M. R. (2012). Shorebird incubation behaviour and its influence on the risk of nest predation. Animal Behaviour 84, 835–842.
| Shorebird incubation behaviour and its influence on the risk of nest predation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Söderström, B., Pärt, T., and Rydén, J. (1998). Different nest predator faunas and nest predation risk on ground and shrub nests at forest ecotones: an experiment and a review. Oecologia 117, 108–118.
| Different nest predator faunas and nest predation risk on ground and shrub nests at forest ecotones: an experiment and a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stokes, D. L., and Boersma, P. D. (1998). Nest-site characteristics and reproductive success in Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). The Auk 115, 34–49.
| Nest-site characteristics and reproductive success in Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sugden, L. G., and Beyersbergen, G. W. (1987). Effect of nesting cover density on American crow predation of simulated duck nests. The Journal of Wildlife Management 51, 481–485.
| Effect of nesting cover density on American crow predation of simulated duck nests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tan, L. X. L., Buchanan, K. L., Maguire, G. S., and Weston, M. A. (2015). Cover, not caging, influences chronic physiological stress in a ground-nesting bird. Journal of Avian Biology , .
| Cover, not caging, influences chronic physiological stress in a ground-nesting bird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomas, L., Buckland, S. T., Rexstad, E. A., Laake, J. L., Strindberg, S., Hedley, S. L., Bishop, J. R. B., Marques, T. A., and Burnham, K. P. (2010). Distance software: design and analysis of distance sampling surveys for estimating population size. Journal of Applied Ecology 47, 5–14.
| Distance software: design and analysis of distance sampling surveys for estimating population size.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20383262PubMed |
Wesołowski, T. (2002). Anti-predator adaptations in nesting marsh tits Parus palustris: the role of nest-site security. The Ibis 144, 593–601.
| Anti-predator adaptations in nesting marsh tits Parus palustris: the role of nest-site security.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weston, M. A., Antos, M. J., and Tzaros, C. L. (2009). Sand pads: a promising technique to quantify human visitation into nature conservation areas. Landscape and Urban Planning 89, 98–104.
| Sand pads: a promising technique to quantify human visitation into nature conservation areas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weston, M. A., and Elgar, M. A. (2007). Responses of incubating hooded plovers (Thinornis rubricollis) to disturbance. Journal of Coastal Research 233, 569–576.
| Responses of incubating hooded plovers (Thinornis rubricollis) to disturbance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whisson, D. A., Weston, M. A., and Shannon, K. (2015). Home range, habitat use and movements by the little raven (Corvus mellori), in a coastal peri-urban landscape. Wildlife Research , .
| Home range, habitat use and movements by the little raven (Corvus mellori), in a coastal peri-urban landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yosef, R., and Yosef, N. (2010). Cooperative hunting in brown-necked raven (Corvus rufficollis) on Egyptian mastigure (Uromastyx aegyptius). Journal of Ethology 28, 385–388.
| Cooperative hunting in brown-necked raven (Corvus rufficollis) on Egyptian mastigure (Uromastyx aegyptius).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zuur, A. F., Ieno, E. N., Walker, N. J., Saveliev, A., and Smith, G. M. (2009) ‘Mixed Effects Models and Extensions in Ecology with R.’ (Springer: New York.)
