‘It’s a people problem, not a goat problem.’ Mitigating human–mountain goat interactions in a Canadian Provincial Park
Josie V. Vayro
A B * , Emalee A. Vandermale B and Courtney W. Mason B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Wildlife Research Scientist, Bailey Environmental Consulting, 217–998 Harbourside Drive North Vancouver, BC, V7P 3T2, Canada.
B Tourism Management/Natural Resource Science Department, Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, BC, Canada.
Wildlife Research 50(11) 911-926 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR22005
Submitted: 15 January 2022 Accepted: 6 December 2022 Published: 3 January 2023
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
Context: Wildlife viewing is a primary reason people visit parks and protected areas. However, high rates of visitation increase the potential for interactions between humans and wildlife. This close proximity of humans and wildlife can lead to habituation to human presence and pose a threat to both animals and humans.
Aims: We describe human–mountain goat interactions in Cathedral Provincial Park (CPP), in British Columbia (BC), Canada, and examine management and mitigation strategies to reduce these interactions.
Methods: This project was a collaboration with BC Parks. We used community-based participatory research methodologies, conducting interviews and surveys from July 2020 to November 2021 with park visitors, staff, and researchers.
Key results: Most respondents encountered mountain goats in the park and understood the park’s messaging; however, not all respondents took the necessary steps to reduce encounters. We recommend further education efforts focused on formal staff training and improved infrastructure in the park.
Conclusions: Our results can be used to inform management decisions related to human–wildlife interactions, primarily in parks and protected areas. On a proximate level, we suggest further educational efforts and improved infrastructure in the park to help overcome perceived lack of action by some participants. Ultimately, there is a need to incorporate human aspects of human–wildlife interactions into management decisions aimed at addressing potential and existing problems.
Implications: Using a multitude of approaches to management, informed by biological, social, and cultural knowledge, can improve responses and mitigation strategies in human–wildlife interactions. Collaboration among different stakeholders allows for the exchange of ideas and innovations that can contribute to positive movement towards coexistence of humans and wildlife in parks and recreational areas.
Keywords: BC Parks, community-based participatory research, conservation, conservation education, human–animal interactions, human perceptions of wildlife, mitigation strategies, Oreamnos americanus.
References
Ashok, S, Tewari, HR, Behera, MD, and Majumdar, A (2017). Development of ecotourism sustainability assessment framework employing Delphi, C&I and participatory methods: a case study of KBR, West Sikkim, India. Tourism Management Perspectives 21, 24–41.| Development of ecotourism sustainability assessment framework employing Delphi, C&I and participatory methods: a case study of KBR, West Sikkim, India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ayotte, JB, Parker, KL, Arocena, JM, and Gillingham, MP (2006). Chemical composition of lick soils: functions of soil ingestion by four ungulate species. Journal of Mammalogy 87, 878–888.
| Chemical composition of lick soils: functions of soil ingestion by four ungulate species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ayotte, JB, Parker, KL, and Gillingham, MP (2008). Use of natural licks by four species of ungulates in northern British Columbia. Journal of Mammalogy 89, 1041–1050.
| Use of natural licks by four species of ungulates in northern British Columbia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Balyx L (2022) Human conflict and coexistence with mountain goats in a protected alpine landscape. Master’s thesis, University of British Columbia, Okanagan, British Columbia, Canada.
Balyx L, Ford A (n.d.) Conflict and coexistence with mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) in a protected alpine landscape. Report prepared for BC Parks, Okanagan, British Columbia, Canada.
Barnes, ML, Bodin, Ö, Guerrero, AM, McAllister, RRJ, Alexander, SM, and Robins, G (2017). The social structural foundations of adaptation and transformation in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 22, 16.
| The social structural foundations of adaptation and transformation in social-ecological systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barriball, K, and While, A (1994). Collecting data using a semi-structured interview: a discussion paper. Journal of Advanced Nursing 19, 328–335.
| Collecting data using a semi-structured interview: a discussion paper.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bath, AJ, and Enck, JW (2003). Wildlife–human interactions in national parks in Canada and the USA. Social Science Research Review 4, 1–32.
BBC News (2010) Mountain goat kills US hiker in Olympic National Park. Available at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-11562054 [Accessed 29 April 2021]
BC Parks (n.d.a) Facts and figures. Available at https://bcparks.ca/about/facts-figures.html#attendance [Accessed 28 April 2021]
BC Parks (n.d.b) About. Available at https://bcparks.ca/about/ [Accessed 19 November 2021]
BC Parks (n.d.c) Cathedral Provincial Park. Available at https://bcparks.ca/explore/parkpgs/cathedral/ [Accessed 6 July 2021]
Beissinger SR, Ackerly DD (2017) Science, parks, and conservation in a rapidly changing world. In ‘Science, conservation, and national parks’. (Eds SR Beissinger, DD Ackerly, H Doremus, GE Machlis) pp. 363–388. (The University of Chicago Press: London, UK)
Blackwell, BF, DeVault, TL, Fernandez-Juricic, E, Gese, EM, Gilbert-Norton, L, and Breck, SW (2016). No single solution: application of behavioural principles in mitigating human–wildlife conflict. Animal Behaviour 120, 245–254.
| No single solution: application of behavioural principles in mitigating human–wildlife conflict.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bodin, Ö, Sandström, A, and Crona, B (2017). Collaborative networks for effective ecosystem-based management: a set of working hypotheses. Policy Studies Journal 45, 289–314.
| Collaborative networks for effective ecosystem-based management: a set of working hypotheses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buckley, RC, Castley, JG, Pegas, FdV, Mossaz, AC, and Steven, R (2012). A population accounting approach to assess tourism contributions to conservation of IUCN-redlisted mammal species. PLoS ONE 7, e44134.
| A population accounting approach to assess tourism contributions to conservation of IUCN-redlisted mammal species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) (2021) Species search. Available at https://species-registry.canada.ca/index-en.html#/species?sortBy=commonNameSort&sortDirection=asc&pageSize=10&keywords=Mountain%20goat [Accessed 6 July 2021]
Decker DJ, Brown TL, Siemer WF (2001) ‘Human dimensions of wildlife management in North America.’ (The Wildlife Society: Bethesda, MD, USA)
Eagly AH, Chaiken S (1993) ‘The psychology of attitudes.’ (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc: New York, NY, USA)
Elo, S, and Kyngäs, H (2008). The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of Advanced Nursing 62, 107–115.
| The qualitative content analysis process.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ferretti-Gallon, K, Griggs, E, Shrestha, A, and Wang, G (2021). National parks best practices: lessons from a century’s worth of national parks management. International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks 9, 335–346.
| National parks best practices: lessons from a century’s worth of national parks management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Festa-Bianchet M (2020) Oreamnos americanus. The IUCN red list of threatened species 2020: e.T42680A22153133. Available at https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T42680A22153133.en [Accessed 7 April 2021]
Festa-Bianchet M, Côté SD (2008) ‘Mountain goats: ecology, behavior, and conservation of an alpine ungulate.’ (Island Press: Washington, DC, USA)
Fishbein M, Ajzen I (2010) ‘Predicting and changing behavior: the reasoned action approach.’ (Taylor & Francis: New York, NY, USA)
Grosman, PD, Jaeger, JAG, Biron, PM, Dussault, C, and Ouellet, J-P (2009). Reducing moose–vehicle collisions through salt pool removal and displacement: an agent-based modeling approach. Ecology and Society 14, 17.
| Reducing moose–vehicle collisions through salt pool removal and displacement: an agent-based modeling approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grünewald, C, Schleuning, M, and Böhning-Gaese, K (2016). Biodiversity, scenery and infrastructure: factors driving wildlife tourism in an African savannah national park. Biological Conservation 201, 60–68.
| Biodiversity, scenery and infrastructure: factors driving wildlife tourism in an African savannah national park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hanks J (2000) The role of transfrontier conservation areas in southern Africa in the conservation of mammalian biodiversity. In ‘Priorities for the conservation of mammalian diversity. Has the panda had its days?’. (Eds A Entwistle, N Dunstone) pp. 239–256. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Hillman W, Radel K (2018) ‘Qualitative methods in tourism research: theory and practice.’ (Channel View Publications: Bristol, UK)
Hockett KS (2000) The effectiveness of two interpretations on reducing deer feeding behavior by park visitors. MSc thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Forestry, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
Kroesen, LP, Hik, DS, and Cherry, SG (2020). Patterns of decadal, seasonal and daily visitation to mineral licks, a critical resource hotspot for mountain goats Oreamnos americanus in the Rocky Mountains. Wildlife Biology 2020, 1–11.
| Patterns of decadal, seasonal and daily visitation to mineral licks, a critical resource hotspot for mountain goats Oreamnos americanus in the Rocky Mountains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lemons, J (2010). Revisiting the meaning and purpose of the ‘national park service organic act’. Environmental Management 46, 81–90.
| Revisiting the meaning and purpose of the ‘national park service organic act’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Leong KM, Stiver B, Donaldson L, Bates S (2016) A behavior-based framework for managing human–wildlife interactions in parks: managing individual animal behavior. Natural Resource Report NPS/NRSS/BRD/NRR—2016/1288. (National Park Service: Fort Collins, CO, USA)
Lischka, SA, Teel, TL, Johnson, HE, Reed, SE, Breck, S, Don Carlos, A, and Crooks, KR (2018). A conceptual model for the integration of social and ecological information to understand human-wildlife interactions. Biological Conservation 225, 80–87.
| A conceptual model for the integration of social and ecological information to understand human-wildlife interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lozano, J, Olszańska, A, Morales-Reyes, Z, Castro, AA, Malo, AF, Moleón, M, Sánchez-Zapata, JA, Cortés-Avizanda, A, von Wehrden, H, Dorresteijn, I, Kansky, R, Fischer, J, and Martín-López, B (2019). Human–carnivore relations: a systematic review. Biological Conservation 237, 480–492.
| Human–carnivore relations: a systematic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lute ML, Gore ML (2019) Broadening the aperture on coexistence with wildlife through the lenses of identity, risk and morals. In ‘Human–wildlife interactions: turning conflict into coexistence’. (Eds BF Frank, JA Glikman, S Marchini) pp. 45–64. (Cambridge University Press: UK)
Manolache, S, Nita, A, Ciocanea, CM, Popescu, VD, and Rozylowicz, L (2018). Power, influence and structure in Natura 2000 governance networks. A comparative analysis of two protected areas in Romania. Journal of Environmental Management 212, 54–64.
| Power, influence and structure in Natura 2000 governance networks. A comparative analysis of two protected areas in Romania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marion, JL, and Reid, SE (2007). Minimising visitor impacts to protected areas: the efficacy of low impact education programmes. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 15, 5–27.
| Minimising visitor impacts to protected areas: the efficacy of low impact education programmes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mountain Goat Management Team (2010) Management plan for the mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) in British Columbia. (BC Ministry of Environment: Victoria, BC, Canada)
Myers, N (1990). The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spots analysis. Environmentalist 10, 243–256.
| The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spots analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
National Park Service (2018) ‘Olympic National Park final mountain goat management plan/environmental impact statement.’ (US Department of the Interior, National Park Service: Washington, DC, USA)
NatureServe Explorer (2016) Oreamnos americanus, Moutain Goat. Available at https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.104036/Oreamnos_americanus [Accessed 7 April 2021]
Noy, C (2008). Sampling knowledge: the hermeneutics of snowball sampling in qualitative research. International Journal of Social Research Methodology 11, 327–344.
| Sampling knowledge: the hermeneutics of snowball sampling in qualitative research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Fallon, LR, and Dearry, A (2002). Community-based participatory research as a tool to advance environmental health sciences. Environmental Health Perspectives 110, 155–159.
| Community-based participatory research as a tool to advance environmental health sciences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orams, MB (2002). Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: a review of issues and impacts. Tourism Management 23, 281–293.
| Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: a review of issues and impacts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parks Canada (2021) Parks Canada attendance 2019–20. Available at https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/docs/pc/attend [Accessed 28 April 2021]
Pătru-Stupariu, I, Nita, A, Mustăţea, M, Huzui-Stoiculescu, A, and Fürst, C (2020). Using social network methodological approach to better understand human–wildlife interactions. Land Use Policy 99, 105009.
| Using social network methodological approach to better understand human–wildlife interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Penker, M (2009). Landscape governance for or by the local population? A property rights analysis in Austria. Land Use Policy 26, 947–953.
| Landscape governance for or by the local population? A property rights analysis in Austria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Poole KG, Ayotte J (2019) Kootenay region bighorn sheep management plan. (BC Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development: Cranbrook, BC, Canada)
Reid, WV (1998). Biodiversity hotspots. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 13, 275–280.
| Biodiversity hotspots.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rice, CG (2008). Seasonal altitudinal movements of mountain goats. Journal of Wildlife Management 72, 1706–1716.
| Seasonal altitudinal movements of mountain goats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rice, CG (2010). Mineral lick visitation by mountain goats, Oreamnos americanus. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 124, 225–237.
| Mineral lick visitation by mountain goats, Oreamnos americanus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Riley, SJ, Decker, DJ, Carpenter, LH, Organ, JF, Siemer, WF, Mattfeld, GF, and Parsons, G (2002). The essence of wildlife management. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30, 585–593.
Rogala, JK, Hebblewhite, M, Whittington, J, White, CA, Coleshill, J, and Musiani, M (2011). Human activity differentially redistributes large mammals in the Canadian Rockies National Parks. Ecology and Society 16, 16.
| Human activity differentially redistributes large mammals in the Canadian Rockies National Parks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sarmento, WM, and Berger, J (2017). Human visitation limits the utility of protected areas as ecological baselines. Biological Conservation 212, 316–326.
| Human visitation limits the utility of protected areas as ecological baselines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sarmento, W, and Berger, J (2020). Conservation implications of using an imitation carnivore to assess rarely used refuges as critical habitat features in an alpine ungulate. PeerJ 8, e9296.
| Conservation implications of using an imitation carnivore to assess rarely used refuges as critical habitat features in an alpine ungulate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Senthilkumar, K, Mathialagan, P, Sabarathnam, VE, and Manivannan, C (2017). Development of perception test for human-wildlife conflict. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 6, 817–824.
| Development of perception test for human-wildlife conflict.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shackleton DM (1999) ‘Hoofed mammals of British Columbia.’ (Royal British Columbia Museum, UBC Press: Victoria, Canada, Vancouver, BC, Canada)
Slabach, BL, Corey, TB, Aprille, JR, Starks, PT, and Dane, B (2015). Geophagic behavior in the mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus): support for meeting metabolic demands. Canadian Journal of Zoology 93, 599–604.
| Geophagic behavior in the mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus): support for meeting metabolic demands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Songhurst, A (2017). Measuring human-wildlife conflicts: comparing insights from different monitoring approaches. Wildlife Society Bulletin 41, 351–361.
| Measuring human-wildlife conflicts: comparing insights from different monitoring approaches.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson, E, Nielsen, N, and Buultjens, J (2009). From lessees to partners: exploring tourism public–private partnerships within the New South Wales national parks and wildlife service. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 17, 269–285.
| From lessees to partners: exploring tourism public–private partnerships within the New South Wales national parks and wildlife service.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wright W (1977) Ecology of the cascade mountain goat, Mount Baker Snoqualmie National Forest. In ‘Proceedings of the first international mountain goat symposium’. (Eds W Samuel, WG Macgregor). (B.C. Ministry of Recreation and Conservation: Kelowna, BC, Canada)
