Animal welfare testing for shooting and darting free-ranging wildlife: a review and recommendations
Jordan O. Hampton
A L , Jon M. Arnemo B , Richard Barnsley C , Marc Cattet D , Pierre-Yves Daoust E , Anthony J. DeNicola F , Grant Eccles G , Don Fletcher C , Lyn A. Hinds H , Rob Hunt G , Timothy Portas I , Sigbjørn Stokke J , Bruce Warburton K and Claire Wimpenny C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic. 3052, Australia.
B Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, NO-2480, Koppang, Norway and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden.
C Australian Capital Territory Government, GPO Box 158, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
D RGL Recovery Wildlife Health and Veterinary Services, 415 Allison Crescent, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
E University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada.
F White Buffalo Incorporated, 26 Davison Road, Moodus, CT 06469, USA.
G New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, GPO Box 1967, Hurstville, NSW 1481, Australia.
H CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
I Zoo and Wildlife Veterinary Consultancy, 6 Mary Cairncross Avenue, Maleny, Qld 4552, Australia.
J Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, PO Box 5685 Torgard, Trondheim, Norway.
K Landcare Research, PO Box 69040, Lincoln 7640, New Zealand.
L Corresponding author. Email: jordan.hampton@unimelb.edu.au
Wildlife Research 48(7) 577-589 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR20107
Submitted: 24 June 2020 Accepted: 14 February 2021 Published: 28 April 2021
Journal Compilation © CSIRO 2021 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Several important techniques for managing wildlife rely on ballistics (the behaviour of projectiles), including killing techniques (shooting) as well as capture and marking methods (darting). Because all ballistic techniques have the capacity to harm animals, animal welfare is an important consideration. Standardised testing approaches that have allowed refinement for other physical killing and capture methods (e.g. traps for mammals) have not been applied broadly to ballistic methods. At the same time, new technology is becoming available for shooting (e.g. subsonic and lead-free ammunition) and darting (e.g. dye-marker darts). We present several case studies demonstrating (a) how basic ballistic testing can be performed for novel firearms and/or projectiles, (b) the benefits of identifying methods producing undesirable results before operational use, and (c) the welfare risks associated with bypassing testing of a technique before broad-scale application. Following the approach that has been used internationally to test kill-traps, we suggest the following four-step testing process: (1) range and field testing to confirm accuracy and precision, the delivery of appropriate kinetic energy levels and projectile behaviour, (2) post-mortem assessment of ballistic injury in cadavers, (3) small-scale live animal pilot studies with predetermined threshold pass/fail levels, and (4) broad-scale use with reporting of the frequency of adverse animal welfare outcomes. We present this as a practical approach for maintaining and improving animal welfare standards when considering the use of ballistic technology for wildlife management.
Keywords: ethics, fertility control, human dimensions, pest control, population control.
References
Aebischer, N. J., Wheatley, C. J., and Rose, H. R. (2014). Factors associated with shooting accuracy and wounding rate of four managed wild deer species in the UK, based on anonymous field records from deer stalkers. PLoS One 9, e109698.| Factors associated with shooting accuracy and wounding rate of four managed wild deer species in the UK, based on anonymous field records from deer stalkers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25334012PubMed |
Amos, M., Baxter, G., Finch, N., and Murray, P. (2014). At home in a new range: wild red deer in south-eastern Queensland. Wildlife Research 41, 258–265.
| At home in a new range: wild red deer in south-eastern Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anonymous (2018). ‘Marine Mammal Regulations. SOR/93–56.’ (Minister of Justice: Ottawa, Canada.)
Arnemo, J. M., Ahlqvist, P., Andersen, R., Berntsen, F., Ericsson, G., Odden, J., Brunberg, S., Segerström, P., and Swenson, J. E. (2006). Risk of capture-related mortality in large free-ranging mammals: experiences from Scandinavia. Wildlife Biology 12, 109–113.
| Risk of capture-related mortality in large free-ranging mammals: experiences from Scandinavia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Aune, K., Kreeger, T. J., and Roffe, T. J. (2002). Overview of delivery systems for the administration of vaccines to elk and bison of the greater Yellowstone area. In ‘Proceedings of Brucellosis in Elk and Bison in the Greater Yellowstone Area Conference’. (Eds T. Kreeger.) pp. 66–79. (Wyoming Game and Fish Department: Cheyenne, WY, USA.)
Barnes, D. M., and Rogers, L. L. (1980). Clostridial myonecrosis in a black bear associated with drug administration. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 16, 315–317.
| Clostridial myonecrosis in a black bear associated with drug administration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 7411734PubMed |
Beausoleil, R. A., Clark, J. D., and Maletzke, B. T. (2016). A long-term evaluation of biopsy darts and DNA to estimate cougar density: an agency–citizen science collaboration. Wildlife Society Bulletin 40, 583–592.
| A long-term evaluation of biopsy darts and DNA to estimate cougar density: an agency–citizen science collaboration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bengsen, A. J., Forsyth, D. M., Harris, S., Latham, A. D. M., McLeod, S. R., and Pople, A. (2020). A systematic review of ground-based shooting to control overabundant mammal populations. Wildlife Research 47, 197–207.
| A systematic review of ground-based shooting to control overabundant mammal populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blackmore, D. (1985). Energy requirements for the penetration of heads of domestic stock and the development of a multiple projectile. The Veterinary Record 116, 36–40.
| Energy requirements for the penetration of heads of domestic stock and the development of a multiple projectile.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 3976138PubMed |
Broadway, M. S., McCallen, E. B., Caudell, J., and Stewart, C. M. (2020). Ammunition type and shot placement determine lead fragmentation in deer. The Journal of Wildlife Management 84, 1406–1414.
| Ammunition type and shot placement determine lead fragmentation in deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Byrne, A. W., O’Keeffe, J., Fogarty, U., Rooney, P., and Martin, S. W. (2015). Monitoring trap-related injury status during large-scale wildlife management programmes: an adaptive management approach. European Journal of Wildlife Research 61, 445–455.
| Monitoring trap-related injury status during large-scale wildlife management programmes: an adaptive management approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Calvert, W., Taylor, M., Stirling, I., Atkinson, S., Ramsay, M. A., Lunn, N. J., Obbard, M., Elliot, C., Lamontagne, G., and Schaefer, J. (1998). Polar bear management in Canada 1993–1996. In ‘Polar Bears: Proceedings of the Twelfth Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group’. (Eds A. E. Derocher, G. W. Garner, and Ø. Wiig.) pp. 69–91. (IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.)
Carey, K. A., Ortiz, A., Grams, K., Elkins, D., Turner, J. W., and Rutberg, A. T. (2020). Efficacy of dart-delivered PZP-22 immunocontraceptive vaccine in wild horses (Equus caballus) in baited traps in New Mexico, USA. Wildlife Research 46, 713–718.
| Efficacy of dart-delivered PZP-22 immunocontraceptive vaccine in wild horses (Equus caballus) in baited traps in New Mexico, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cattet, M. R., Bourque, A., Elkin, B. T., Powley, K. D., Dahlstrom, D. B., and Caulkett, N. A. (2006). Evaluation of the potential for injury with remote drug-delivery systems. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34, 741–749.
| Evaluation of the potential for injury with remote drug-delivery systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Caudell, J. N. (2013). Review of wound ballistic research and its applicability to wildlife management. Wildlife Society Bulletin 37, 824–831.
| Review of wound ballistic research and its applicability to wildlife management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Caudell, J., West, B., Griffin, B., and Davis, K. (2009). Fostering greater professionalism with firearms in the wildlife arena. Proceedings of the Wildlife Damage Management Conference 13, 95–99.
Caudell, J. N., Stopak, S. R., and Wolf, P. C. (2012). Lead-free, high-powered rifle bullets and their applicability in wildlife management. Human-Wildlife Interactions 6, 105–111.
| Lead-free, high-powered rifle bullets and their applicability in wildlife management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Caudell, J. N., Courtney, M. W., Turnage, C. T. (2013). Initial evidence for the effectiveness of subsonic .308 ammunition for use in wildlife damage management. Proceedings of the Wildlife Damage Management Conference 15, 98–104.
Colgan, S. A., Perkins, N. R., and Green, L. A. (2019). The large‐scale capture of eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) and red kangaroos (Osphranter rufus) and its application to a population management project. Australian Veterinary Journal 97, 515–523.
| The large‐scale capture of eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) and red kangaroos (Osphranter rufus) and its application to a population management project.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31745981PubMed |
Commonwealth of Australia (2008). ‘National Code of Practice for the Humane Shooting of Kangaroos and Wallabies for Commercial Purposes.’ (Department of Environment and Heritage: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
Daoust, P.-Y., and Caraguel, C. (2012). The Canadian harp seal hunt: observations on the effectiveness of procedures to avoid poor animal welfare outcomes. Animal Welfare 21, 445–455.
| The Canadian harp seal hunt: observations on the effectiveness of procedures to avoid poor animal welfare outcomes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Daoust, P.-Y., and Cattet, M. R. (2004). ‘Consideration of Use of the. 22 Caliber Rimfire Winchester Magnum Cartridge for Instant Killing of Young Harp Seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus). Research Document 2004/072.’ (Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat: Ottawa, Canada.)
Daoust, P.-Y., Caraguel, C., Fenton, H., Hammill, M. O., Roy, L. D., and Spears, J. (2013). ‘Assessment of Current and Alternative Methods for Killing Young Grey Seals (Halichoerus grypus) During Commercial Harvest. Research Document 2012/132.’ (Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat: Ottawa, Canada.)
Delsink, A. K., Van Altena, J., Grobler, D., Bertschinger, H. J., Kirkpatrick, J. F., and Slotow, R. (2007). Implementing immunocontraception in free-ranging African elephants at Makalali Conservancy. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 78, 25–30.
| Implementing immunocontraception in free-ranging African elephants at Makalali Conservancy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17665762PubMed |
Dematteis, A., Menzano, A., Canavese, G., Meneguz, P. G., and Rossi, L. (2009). Anaesthesia of free-ranging northern chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) with xylazine/ketamine and reversal with atipamezole. European Journal of Wildlife Research 55, 567–573.
| Anaesthesia of free-ranging northern chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) with xylazine/ketamine and reversal with atipamezole.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
DeNicola, A. J., Kesler, D. J., and Swihart, R. K. (1996). Ballistics of a biobullet delivery system. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24, 301–305.
DeNicola, A. J., Kesler, D. J., and Swihart, R. K. (1997). Remotely delivered prostaglandin F2α implants terminate pregnancy in white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25, 527–531.
DeNicola, A. J., Miller, D. S., DeNicola, V. L., Meyer, R. E., and Gambino, J. M. (2019). Assessment of humaneness using gunshot targeting the brain and cervical spine for cervid depopulation under field conditions. PLoS One 14, e0213200.
| Assessment of humaneness using gunshot targeting the brain and cervical spine for cervid depopulation under field conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30818392PubMed |
Dubois, S., Fenwick, N., Ryan, E. A., Baker, L., Baker, S. E., Beausoleil, N. J., Carter, S., Cartwright, B., Costa, F., and Draper, C. (2017). International consensus principles for ethical wildlife control. Conservation Biology 31, 753–760.
| International consensus principles for ethical wildlife control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28092422PubMed |
Evans, C. S., DeNicola, A. J., Eisemann, J. D., and Warren, R. J. (2015). Administering GonaConTM to white-tailed deer via hand-injection versus syringe-dart. Human-Wildlife Interactions 9, 265–272.
Fleming, P. J., Allen, L. R., Berghout, M. J., Meek, P. D., Pavlov, P. M., Stevens, P., Strong, K., Thompson, J. A., and Thomson, P. C. (1998). The performance of wild-canid traps in Australia: efficiency, selectivity and trap-related injuries. Wildlife Research 25, 327–338.
| The performance of wild-canid traps in Australia: efficiency, selectivity and trap-related injuries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Friedrich, K. G. (1998). Wound ballistics investigations of the effect of injection distance as a contribution to practical animal protection. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
Gremse, F., Krone, O., Thamm, M., Kiessling, F., Tolba, R. H., Rieger, S., and Gremse, C. (2014). Performance of lead-free versus lead-based hunting ammunition in ballistic soap. PLoS One 9, e102015.
| Performance of lead-free versus lead-based hunting ammunition in ballistic soap.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25029572PubMed |
Gulland, F. M., Nutter, F. B., Dixon, K., Calambokidis, J., Schorr, G., Barlow, J., Rowles, T., Wilkin, S., Spradlin, T., Gage, L., and Mulsow, J. (2008). Health assessment, antibiotic treatment, and behavioral responses to herding efforts of a cow-calf pair of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the Sacramento River Delta, California. Aquatic Mammals 34, 182–192.
| Health assessment, antibiotic treatment, and behavioral responses to herding efforts of a cow-calf pair of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the Sacramento River Delta, California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hadidian, J., Griffin, J., and Pauli, D. (2016). Are humane traps ‘humane’? An animal welfare perspective. Proceedings of the Wildlife Damage Management Conference 16, 19–20.
Hampton, J. O., and Forsyth, D. M. (2016). An assessment of animal welfare for the culling of peri-urban kangaroos. Wildlife Research 43, 261–266.
| An assessment of animal welfare for the culling of peri-urban kangaroos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., and Hyndman, T. H. (2019). Under-addressed animal welfare issues in conservation. Conservation Biology 33, 803–811.
| Under-addressed animal welfare issues in conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30549308PubMed |
Hampton, J. O., and Teh-White, K. (2019). Animal welfare, social license, and wildlife use industries. The Journal of Wildlife Management 83, 12–21.
| Animal welfare, social license, and wildlife use industries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., Cowled, B. D., Perry, A. L., Miller, C. J., Jones, B., and Hart, Q. (2014). Quantitative analysis of animal-welfare outcomes in helicopter shooting: a case study with feral dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). Wildlife Research 41, 127–135.
| Quantitative analysis of animal-welfare outcomes in helicopter shooting: a case study with feral dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., Adams, P., Forsyth, D. M., Cowled, B. D., Stuart, I. G., Hyndman, T. H., and Collins, T. (2016a). Improving animal welfare in wildlife shooting: the importance of projectile energy. Wildlife Society Bulletin 40, 678–686.
| Improving animal welfare in wildlife shooting: the importance of projectile energy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., Hyndman, T. H., Laurence, M., Perry, A. L., Adams, P., and Collins, T. (2016b). Animal welfare and the use of procedural documents: limitations and refinement. Wildlife Research 43, 599–603.
| Animal welfare and the use of procedural documents: limitations and refinement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., Robertson, H., Adams, P., Hyndman, T. H., and Collins, T. (2016c). An animal welfare assessment framework for helicopter darting: a case study with a newly developed method for feral horses. Wildlife Research 43, 429–437.
| An animal welfare assessment framework for helicopter darting: a case study with a newly developed method for feral horses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., Finch, N., Amos, M., Pople, T., Watter, K., Brennan, M., Moriarty, A., Jacotine, A., Panther, D., McGhie, C., Davies, C., Mitchell, J., and Forsyth, D. M. (2019a). A review of methods used for the capture and restraint of introduced wild deer in Australia. Australian Mammalogy 41, 1–11.
| A review of methods used for the capture and restraint of introduced wild deer in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., MacKenzie, D. I., and Forsyth, D. M. (2019b). How many to sample? Statistical guidelines for monitoring animal welfare outcomes. PLoS One 14, e0211417.
| How many to sample? Statistical guidelines for monitoring animal welfare outcomes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30699193PubMed |
Hampton, J. O., Amos, M., Pople, T., Brennan, M., and Forsyth, D. M. (2020a). Minimising mortalities in capturing wildlife: refinement of helicopter darting of chital deer (Axis axis) in Australia. Wildlife Research , .
| Minimising mortalities in capturing wildlife: refinement of helicopter darting of chital deer (Axis axis) in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., DeNicola, A. J., and Forsyth, D. M. (2020b). Assessment of lead-free.22 LR bullets for shooting European rabbits. Wildlife Society Bulletin 44, 760–765.
| Assessment of lead-free.22 LR bullets for shooting European rabbits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hampton, J. O., Eccles, G., Hunt, R., Parker, S., Hart, Q., Bengsen, A. J., Perry, A. L., Miller, C. J., Joslyn, S. K.., Stokke, S., and Arnemo, J. M. (2021). A comparison of fragmenting lead-based and lead-free bullets for aerial shooting of wild pigs. Plos One 16, e0247785.
| 33705434PubMed |
Harrop, S. R. (1998). The agreements on international humane trapping standards‐background, critique and the texts. Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 387–394.
| The agreements on international humane trapping standards‐background, critique and the texts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hooker, S. K., Iverson, S. J., Ostrom, P., and Smith, S. C. (2001). Diet of northern bottlenose whales inferred from fatty-acid and stable-isotope analyses of biopsy samples. Canadian Journal of Zoology 79, 1442–1454.
| Diet of northern bottlenose whales inferred from fatty-acid and stable-isotope analyses of biopsy samples.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
International Organisation for Standardisation (1999). ‘Animal (mammal) traps – part 4: methods for testing killing-trap systems used on land or underwater.’ (International Organisation for Standardisation: Geneva, Switzerland.)
Iossa, G., Soulsbury, C., and Harris, S. (2007). Mammal trapping: a review of animal welfare standards of killing and restraining traps. Animal Welfare 16, 335–352.
Jung, T. S., Konkolics, S. M., Kukka, P. M., Majchrzak, Y. N., Menzies, A. K., Oakley, M. P., Peers, M. J., and Studd, E. K. (2019). Short‐term effect of helicopter‐based capture on movements of a social ungulate. The Journal of Wildlife Management 83, 830–837.
| Short‐term effect of helicopter‐based capture on movements of a social ungulate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kanstrup, N., Balsby, T. J., and Thomas, V. G. (2016). Efficacy of non-lead rifle ammunition for hunting in Denmark. European Journal of Wildlife Research 62, 333–340.
| Efficacy of non-lead rifle ammunition for hunting in Denmark.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kilpatrick, H. J., LaBonte, A. M., Barclay, J. S., and Warner, G. (2004). Assessing strategies to improve bowhunting as an urban deer management tool. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32, 1177–1184.
| Assessing strategies to improve bowhunting as an urban deer management tool.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Knox, A. J., Lardner, B., Yackel Adams, A., and Reed, R. N. (2018). Evaluating airsoft electric guns for control of invasive brown treesnakes. Wildlife Society Bulletin 42, 534–539.
| Evaluating airsoft electric guns for control of invasive brown treesnakes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kreeger, T. J., and Arnemo, J. (2018). ‘Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization.’ 5th edn. (Published by authors.)
Latham, A. D. M., Davidson, B., Warburton, B., Yockney, I., and Hampton, J. O. (2020). Efficacy and animal welfare impacts of novel capture methods for two species of invasive wild mammals in New Zealand. Animals 10, 44.
| Efficacy and animal welfare impacts of novel capture methods for two species of invasive wild mammals in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lewis, A., Pinchin, A., and Kestin, S. (1997). Welfare implications of the night shooting of wild impala (Aepyceros melampus). Animal Welfare 6, 123–131.
Marks, C. A. (2010). Haematological and biochemical responses of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) to different capture methods and shooting. Animal Welfare 19, 223–234.
McCann, B. E., Whitworth, W., and Newman, R. A. (2016). Efficacy of non-lead ammunition for culling elk at Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Human–Wildlife Interactions 10, 268–282.
| Efficacy of non-lead ammunition for culling elk at Theodore Roosevelt National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCann, B., Baker, D., Powers, J., DeNicola, A., Soars, B., and Thompson, M. (2017). Delivery of GonaCon™-Equine to feral horses (Equus caballus) using prototype syringe darts. In ‘Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Wildlife Fertility Control’. (Botsiber Foundation: Media, PA, USA.)
McTee, M., Young, M., Umansky, A., and Ramsey, P. (2017). Better bullets to shoot small mammals without poisoning scavengers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 41, 736–742.
| Better bullets to shoot small mammals without poisoning scavengers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mörner, T., Malmsten, J., Bernodt, K., and Lunneryd, S. G. (2013). A study on the effect of different rifle calibres in euthanisation of grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) in seal traps in the Baltic Sea. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 55, 79–82.
| A study on the effect of different rifle calibres in euthanisation of grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) in seal traps in the Baltic Sea.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24219864PubMed |
Morriss, G. A., and Warburton, B. (2014). Modifying the Victor® Easy Set® rat trap to improve the animal welfare of stoats and ship rats trapped in New Zealand. PLoS One 9, e86760.
| Modifying the Victor® Easy Set® rat trap to improve the animal welfare of stoats and ship rats trapped in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24505264PubMed |
Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (2007). ‘Opinion of the Panel on Animal Health and Welfare of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety 8.10.07: Scientific Opinion on Animal Welfare Aspects of the Killing and Skinning in the Norwegian Seal Hunt.’ (Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety: Oslo, Norway.)
Øen, E. O., and Knudsen, S. K. (2007). Euthanasia of whales: the effect of 375 and 485 calibre round-nosed, full metal-jacketed rifle bullets on the central nervous system of the common minke whale. The Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 9, 81–88.
Olsen, S., and Johnson, C. (2012). Immune responses and safety after dart or booster vaccination of bison with Brucella abortus strain RB51. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology; CVI 19, 642–648.
| Immune responses and safety after dart or booster vaccination of bison with Brucella abortus strain RB51.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22461528PubMed |
Pagano, A. M., Peacock, E., and McKinney, M. A. (2014). Remote biopsy darting and marking of polar bears. Marine Mammal Science 30, 169–183.
| Remote biopsy darting and marking of polar bears.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parker, H., Rosell, F., and Danielsen, J. (2006). Efficacy of cartridge type and projectile design in the harvest of beaver. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34, 127–130.
| Efficacy of cartridge type and projectile design in the harvest of beaver.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parkes, J. P., Ramsey, D. S., Macdonald, N., Walker, K., McKnight, S., Cohen, B. S., and Morrison, S. A. (2010). Rapid eradication of feral pigs (Sus scrofa) from Santa Cruz Island, California. Biological Conservation 143, 634–641.
| Rapid eradication of feral pigs (Sus scrofa) from Santa Cruz Island, California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pederson, J. (1984). Mission: desert bighorn. New Mexico Wildlife Magazine 29, 2.
Pierce, B. L., Roster, T. A., Frisbie, M. C., Mason, C. D., and Roberson, J. A. (2015). A comparison of lead and steel shot loads for harvesting mourning doves. Wildlife Society Bulletin 39, 103–115.
| A comparison of lead and steel shot loads for harvesting mourning doves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pneu-Dart (2020). ‘Remote animal deterrent RDD.’ (Pneu-Dart Inc.: Williamsport, PA, USA.)
Powers, J. G., Monello, R. J., Wild, M. A., Spraker, T. R., Gionfriddo, J. P., Nett, T. M., and Baker, D. L. (2014). Effects of GonaCon immunocontraceptive vaccine in free‐ranging female Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni). Wildlife Society Bulletin 38, 650–656.
| Effects of GonaCon immunocontraceptive vaccine in free‐ranging female Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Proulx, G., Cattet, M., Serfass, T. L., and Baker, S. E. (2020). Updating the AIHTS trapping standards to improve animal welfare and capture efficiency and selectivity. Animals 10, 1262.
| Updating the AIHTS trapping standards to improve animal welfare and capture efficiency and selectivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Quérouil, S., Freitas, L., Dinis, A., Alves, F., Cascão, I., Prieto, R., Silva, M. A., Magalhães, S., Matos, J. A., and Santos, R. S. (2010). Sex bias in biopsy samples collected from free-ranging dolphins. European Journal of Wildlife Research 56, 151–158.
| Sex bias in biopsy samples collected from free-ranging dolphins.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Reynolds, J. (2004). Trade-offs between welfare, conservation, utility and economics in wildlife management: a review of conflicts, compromises and regulation. Animal Welfare 13, 133–138.
Rouco, C., Richardson, K. S., and Tompkins, D. M. (2015). Improving animal welfare standards while reducing disease exposure risk during euthanasia of trapped brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). Animal Welfare 24, 235–239.
| Improving animal welfare standards while reducing disease exposure risk during euthanasia of trapped brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rutberg, A., Grams, K., Turner, J. W., and Hopkins, H. (2017). Contraceptive efficacy of priming and boosting doses of controlled-release PZP in wild horses. Wildlife Research 44, 174–181.
| Contraceptive efficacy of priming and boosting doses of controlled-release PZP in wild horses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ryser, A., Scholl, M., Zwahlen, M., Oetliker, M., Ryser‐Degiorgis, M. P., and Breitenmoser, U. (2005). A remote‐controlled teleinjection system for the low‐stress capture of large mammals. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33, 721–730.
| A remote‐controlled teleinjection system for the low‐stress capture of large mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Siegal-Willott, J., Citino, S. B., Wade, S., Elder, L., Hayek, L. A., and Lance, W. R. (2009). Butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine anesthesia in free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) using radiotransmitter darts. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45, 468–480.
| Butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine anesthesia in free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) using radiotransmitter darts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19395756PubMed |
Sjare, B., and Stenson, G. (2002). Estimating struck and loss rates for harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus) in the Northwest Atlantic. Marine Mammal Science 18, 710–720.
| Estimating struck and loss rates for harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus) in the Northwest Atlantic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Skalski, J. R., Millspaugh, J. J., and Spencer, R. D. (2005). Population estimation and biases in paintball, mark–resight surveys of elk. The Journal of Wildlife Management 69, 1043–1052.
| Population estimation and biases in paintball, mark–resight surveys of elk.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Spencer, R. D., Beausoleil, R. A., and Martorello, D. A. (2007). How agencies respond to human–black bear conflicts: a survey of wildlife agencies in North America. Ursus 18, 217–229.
| How agencies respond to human–black bear conflicts: a survey of wildlife agencies in North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stokke, S., Brainerd, S., and Arnemo, J. M. (2017). Metal deposition of copper and lead bullets in moose harvested in Fennoscandia. Wildlife Society Bulletin 41, 98–106.
| Metal deposition of copper and lead bullets in moose harvested in Fennoscandia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stokke, S., Arnemo, J. M., Brainerd, S., Söderberg, A., Kraabøl, M., and Ytrehus, B. (2018). Defining animal welfare standards in hunting: body mass determines thresholds for incapacitation time and flight distance. Scientific Reports 8, 13786.
| Defining animal welfare standards in hunting: body mass determines thresholds for incapacitation time and flight distance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30214004PubMed |
Stokke, S., Arnemo, J. M., and Brainerd, S. (2019). Unleaded hunting: are copper bullets and lead-based bullets equally effective for killing big game? Ambio 48, 1044–1055.
| Unleaded hunting: are copper bullets and lead-based bullets equally effective for killing big game?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30919260PubMed |
Taylor, M., and Lee, J. (1994). Tetracycline as a biomarker for polar bears. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22, 83–89.
Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (2018). ‘Air gun and arrow gun regulations.’ (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department: Austin, TX, USA.)
Thomas, V. G., Gremse, C., and Kanstrup, N. (2016). Non-lead rifle hunting ammunition: issues of availability and performance in Europe. European Journal of Wildlife Research 62, 633–641.
| Non-lead rifle hunting ammunition: issues of availability and performance in Europe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomson, D. U., Wileman, B. W., Rezac, D. J., Miesner, M. D., Johnson-Neitman, J. L., and Biller, D. S. (2013). Computed tomographic evaluation to determine efficacy of euthanasia of yearling feedlot cattle by use of various firearm-ammunition combinations. American Journal of Veterinary Research 74, 1385–1391.
| Computed tomographic evaluation to determine efficacy of euthanasia of yearling feedlot cattle by use of various firearm-ammunition combinations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24168302PubMed |
Tobias, K. S., Robbins, C. T., and Ferner, W. T. (1996). Treatment of cellulitis in an American black bear (Ursus americanus) with antibiotic-impregnated implants. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 27, 109–114.
Tribe, A., Hanger, J., McDonald, I. J., Loader, J., Nottidge, B. J., McKee, J. J., and Phillips, C. J. (2014). A reproductive management program for an urban population of eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus). Animals 4, 562–582.
| A reproductive management program for an urban population of eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26480325PubMed |
Tsuruga, H., Suzuki, M., Takahashi, H., Jinma, K., and Kaji, K. (1999). Immobilization of sika deer with medetomidine and ketamine, and antagonism by atipamezole. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 35, 774–778.
| Immobilization of sika deer with medetomidine and ketamine, and antagonism by atipamezole.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 10574539PubMed |
Valkenburg, P., Tobey, R. W., and Kirk, D. (1999). Velocity of tranquilizer darts and capture mortality of caribou calves. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27, 894–896.
Walter, W. D., Anderson, C. W., and VerCauteren, K. C. (2012). Evaluation of remote delivery of passive integrated transponder (PIT) technology to mark large mammals. PLoS One 7, e44838.
| Evaluation of remote delivery of passive integrated transponder (PIT) technology to mark large mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22984572PubMed |
Warburton, B., and Hall, J. (1995). Impact momentum and clamping force thresholds for developing standards for possum kill traps. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 22, 39–44.
| Impact momentum and clamping force thresholds for developing standards for possum kill traps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Warburton, B., and Norton, B. G. (2009). Towards a knowledge‐based ethic for lethal control of nuisance wildlife. The Journal of Wildlife Management 73, 158–164.
| Towards a knowledge‐based ethic for lethal control of nuisance wildlife.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Warburton, B., and Orchard, I. (1996). Evaluation of five kill traps for effective capture and killing of Australian brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). New Zealand Journal of Zoology 23, 307–314.
| Evaluation of five kill traps for effective capture and killing of Australian brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Warburton, B., Gregory, N. G., and Morriss, G. (2000). Effect of jaw shape in kill-traps on time to loss of palpebral reflexes in brushtail possums. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 36, 92–96.
| Effect of jaw shape in kill-traps on time to loss of palpebral reflexes in brushtail possums.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 10682749PubMed |
Warburton, B., Poutu, N., Peters, D., and Waddington, P. (2008). Traps for killing stoats (Mustela erminea): improving welfare performance. Animal Welfare 17, 111–116.
Webb, S. L., Lewis, J. S., Hewitt, D. G., Hellickson, M. W., and Bryant, F. C. (2008). Assessing the helicopter and net gun as a capture technique for white‐tailed deer. The Journal of Wildlife Management 72, 310–314.
| Assessing the helicopter and net gun as a capture technique for white‐tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams, W., McSorley, A., Hunt, R., and Eccles, G. (2018). Minimising noise disturbance during ground shooting of pest animals through the use of a muzzle blast suppressor/silencer. Ecological Management & Restoration 19, 172–175.
| Minimising noise disturbance during ground shooting of pest animals through the use of a muzzle blast suppressor/silencer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wimpenny, C., and Hinds, L. A. (2018). ‘Fertility Control of Eastern Grey Kangaroos in the ACT – Assessing Efficacy of a Dart-Delivered Immunocontraceptive Vaccine.’ (Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate, ACT Government: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
