Spatiotemporal distribution of large- and medium-sized mammals and humans in the Lar Protected Area, Iran
Jamshid Parchizadeh
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
Third Floor, Number 24, Zartoshtian Alley, Hafez Street, Tehran City, Tehran Province, Iran. Email: Jamshid.Parchizadeh@gmail.com
Wildlife Research 44(5) 400-406 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR16199
Submitted: 15 June 2016 Accepted: 11 June 2017 Published: 25 July 2017
Abstract
Context: One-fifth of mammal species are at risk of extinction in the wild due to overhunting, habitat loss and habitat fragmentation. Protected areas are considered an effective method for conserving biological diversity, and can help prevent declines and extinctions of species. Thus, evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas in achieving conservation objectives is vital for successful conservation and management.
Aims: The aim of this study was to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of large- and medium-sized mammals and humans as an aid to evaluate the effectiveness of the Lar Protected Area in northern Iran. This area is expected to be a year-round habitat for seven large- and medium-sized mammal species: (1) brown bear (Ursus arctos); (2) golden jackal (Canis aureus); (3) Persian leopard (Panthera pardus); (4) Eurasian red fox (Vulpes vulpes); (5) wild goat (Capra aegagrus); (6) Alborz red sheep (Ovis orientalis); and (7) wild boar (Sus scrofa).
Methods: A camera-trap survey (2780 camera-trap days) was conducted in the Lar Protected Area, which included mountains, canyons and plains, from June 2013 to August 2014. The spatial and temporal distribution of four categories of humans in the study area was documented: wardens, poachers, tribal people and tourists.
Key results: All aforementioned mammals were photographed in the study area. The Lar Protected Area was a seasonally important habitat for the majority of these species, especially from October to December, whereas the presence of tribal people, tourists and wardens was greatest in summer. Poachers were most common in autumn, when wardens and other humans were less common. Poachers preferentially used an area containing canyons, as did wild goats, bears, leopards, foxes and jackals.
Conclusions: The seasonality of the distribution of the seven species, which were most common in autumn, suggests that mammals were avoiding humans in summer. An average of 7.6 photographs of poachers for every photograph of a warden was obtained; this implies a potential threat to the conservation of mammals.
Implications: These results suggest that the Lar Protected Area functions as a seasonal habitat for many species of mammals, thus highlighting the importance of adjacent protected areas. Temporal separation of wardens from poachers indicates that reallocation of wardens could reduce poaching.
Additional keywords: Camera trap, Iran, Lar Protected Area, mammals, poachers.
References
Aghili, A., and Yahyakashani, K. (2008). Brown bears in Iran. International Bear News 17, 28–29.Amanollahi, J., Abdullah, A. M., and Tilaki, G. A. D. (2011). Relationship between plants, evening and soil properties in the rangeland, Lar National Park, Iran. African Journal of Agricultural Research 6, 5551–5557.
Ataei, F., Karami, M., and Kaboli, M. (2012). Summer habitat suitability modeling of brown bear Ursusarctos in Southern Alborz Protected Area. Journal of Natural Environment (Iranian Journal of Natural Resources 65, 235–245.
Bertzky, B., Corrigan, C., Kemsey, J., Kenney, S., Ravilious, C., Besançon, C., and Burgess, N. (2012). Tracking progress towards global targets for protected areas. Protected planet report 2012. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and UNEP-WCMC. Cambridge, UK.
Blanc, R., Guillemain, M., Mouronval, J. B., Desmonts, D., and Fritz, H. (2006). Effects of non-consumptive leisure disturbance to wildlife. Revue d’É cologie (La Terre et la Vie) 61, 117–133.
Butchart, S. H. M., Scharlemann, J. P. W., Evans, M. I., Quader, S., Arico, S., Arinaitwe, J., Balman, M., Bennun, L. A., Bertzky, B., Besancon, C., Boucher, T. M., Brooks, T. M., Burfield, I. J., Burgess, N. D., Chan, S., Clay, R. P., Crosby, M. J., Davidson, N. C., Silva, N. D., Devenish, C., Dutson, G. C. L., Fernandez, D. F. D., Fishpool, L. D. C., Fitzgerald, C., Foster, M., Heath, M. F., Hockings, M., Hoffmann, M., Knox, D., Larsen, F. W., Lamoreux, J. F., Loucks, C., May, I., Millett, J., Molloy, D., Morling, P., Parr, M., Ricketts, T. H., Seddon, N., Skolnik, B., Stuart, S. N., Upgren, A., and Woodley, S. (2012). Protecting important sites for biodiversity contributes to meeting global conservation targets. PLoS One 7, e32529.
| Protecting important sites for biodiversity contributes to meeting global conservation targets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XltVymt7o%3D&md5=3c2fb6f5ce2bc58b35632494be48235cCAS |
Carter, N. H., Shrestha, B. K., Karki, J. B., Pradhan, N. M. B., and Liu, J. (2012). Coexistence between wildlife and humans at fine spatial scales. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, 15360–15365.
| Coexistence between wildlife and humans at fine spatial scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhsVyjtLrJ&md5=fa84346d20469cb6dd2e9782aa124416CAS |
Chape, S., Harrison, J., Spalding, M., and Lysenko, I. (2005). Measuring the extent and effectiveness of protected areas as an indicator for meeting global biodiversity targets. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 360, 443–455.
| Measuring the extent and effectiveness of protected areas as an indicator for meeting global biodiversity targets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2M7ot1KltQ%3D%3D&md5=d79f077ddcf3ac525c9499507b253783CAS |
Dickman, A. J., Macdonald, E. A., and Macdonald, D. W. (2011). A review of financial instruments to pay for predator conservation and encourage human–carnivore coexistence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108, 13937–13944.
| A review of financial instruments to pay for predator conservation and encourage human–carnivore coexistence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtFaqt77P&md5=2c01a8ca98113b652c37cc6da4de567aCAS |
Dobson, A., and Lynes, L. (2008). How does poaching affect the size of national parks? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23, 177–180.
| How does poaching affect the size of national parks?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Elmi, A. M. (2003). ‘Comprehensive Studies of Lar National Park.’ (Read Books: Tehran, Iran.)
Gerber, B., Karpanty, S. M., Crawford, C., Kotschwar, M., and Randrianantenaina, J. (2010). An assessment of carnivore relative abundance and density in the eastern rainforests of Madagascar using remotely triggered camera traps. Oryx 44, 219–222.
| An assessment of carnivore relative abundance and density in the eastern rainforests of Madagascar using remotely triggered camera traps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hoffmann, M., Hilton-Taylor, C., Angulo, A., et al. (2010). The impact of conservation on the status of the world’s vertebrates. Science 330, 1503–1509.
| The impact of conservation on the status of the world’s vertebrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsFaht7jM&md5=914fc0132d21c5146029b4202cd73723CAS |
Hoffmann, M., Belant, J. L., Chanson, J. S., Cox, N. A., Lamoreux, J., Rodrigues, A. S. L., Schipper, J., and Stuart, S. N. (2011). The changing fates of the world’s mammals. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 366, 2598–2610.
| The changing fates of the world’s mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Iran Department of the Environment (2002). The management program of the Lar National Park, Physiography. The office of surveying the ecosystems and the regional affairs. NO. 1, III. The office of surveying the ecosystems and the regional affairs, Tehran, Iran. [In Farsi].
Iran Department of the Environment (2003a). The management program of the Lar National Park, Vegetation. The office of surveying the ecosystems and the regional affairs. NO. 10, IV-93. The office of surveying the ecosystems and the regional affairs, Tehran, Iran. [In Farsi].
Iran Department of the Environment (2003b). The management program of the Lar National Park, Aquatic wildlife. The office of surveying the ecosystems and the regional affairs. NO. 11, 3–28. The office of surveying the ecosystems and the regional affairs, Tehran, Iran. [In Farsi].
Jacobs, J. (1974). Quantitative measurements of food selection. Oecologia 14, 413–417.
| Quantitative measurements of food selection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Karanth, K. U., Nichols, J. D., and Kumar, N. S. (2011). Estimating tiger abundance from camera trap data: field surveys and analytical issues. In ‘Camera Traps in Wildlife Ecology’. (Eds A. F. O’Connell, J. D. Nichols and K. U. Karanth.) pp. 97–118. (E-Publishing Inc.: Tokyo.)
Kitamura, S., Thong-Aree, S., Madsri, S., and Poonswad, P. (2010). Mammal diversity and conservation in a small isolated forest of southern Thailand. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 58, 145–156.
Leader-Williams, N., and Milner-Gulland, E. J. (1993). Policies for the enforcement of wildlife laws: the balance between detection and penalties in Luangwa Valley, Zambia. Conservation Biology 7, 611–617.
| Policies for the enforcement of wildlife laws: the balance between detection and penalties in Luangwa Valley, Zambia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Margules, C. R., and Pressey, R. L. (2000). Systematic conservation planning. Nature 405, 243–253.
| Systematic conservation planning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXjsFyjsLg%3D&md5=e8d149fde47421256f171d48576061c0CAS |
Marnewick, K., Funston, P., and Karanth, U. (2008). Camera trapping as method for estimating cheetah abundance. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 38, 59–65.
| Camera trapping as method for estimating cheetah abundance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moen, G. K., Støen, O. G., Sahlen, V., and Swenson, J. E. (2012). Behaviour of solitary adult Scandinavian brown bears (Ursus arctos) when approached by humans on foot. PLoS One 7, e31699.
| Behaviour of solitary adult Scandinavian brown bears (Ursus arctos) when approached by humans on foot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xjt1Kqt7o%3D&md5=d2b5e4a761f2597c197e43721c60b808CAS |
Ordiz, A., Kindberg, J., Sæbø, S., Swenson, J. E., and Støen, O. G. (2014). Brown bear circadian behavior reveals human environmental encroachment. Biological Conservation 173, 1–9.
| Brown bear circadian behavior reveals human environmental encroachment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pires, S. F., and Moreto, W. D. (2011). Preventing wildlife crimes: solutions that can overcome the ‘tragedy of the commons’. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 17, 101–123.
| Preventing wildlife crimes: solutions that can overcome the ‘tragedy of the commons’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rauset, G. R., Andren, H., Swenson, J. E., Samelius, G., Segerstrom, P., Zedrosser, A., and Persson, J. (2016). National parks in northern Sweden as refuges for illegal killing of large carnivores. Conservation Letters 9, 334–341.
| National parks in northern Sweden as refuges for illegal killing of large carnivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ríos-Uzeda, B., Gomez, H., and Wallace, R. B. (2007). A preliminary density estimate for Andean bear using camera-trapping methods. Ursus 18, 124–128.
| A preliminary density estimate for Andean bear using camera-trapping methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ritchie, E. G., and Johnson, C. N. (2009). Predator interactions, mesopredator release and biodiversity conservation. Ecology Letters 12, 982–998.
| Predator interactions, mesopredator release and biodiversity conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rowcliffe, J. M., and Carbone, C. (2008). Surveys using camera traps: are we looking to a brighter future? Animal Conservation 11, 185–186.
| Surveys using camera traps: are we looking to a brighter future?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rowcliffe, J. M., Field, J., Turvey, S. T., and Carbone, C. (2008). Estimating animal density using camera traps without the need for individual recognition. Journal of Applied Ecology 45, 1228–1236.
| Estimating animal density using camera traps without the need for individual recognition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sih, A. (2005). Predator–prey space use as an emergent outcome of a behavioural response race. In ‘Ecology of Predator–Prey Relationships’. (Eds P. Barbosa, I. Castellanos.) pp. 240–255. (Oxford University Press: Oxford.)
Silver, S. (2004). ‘Assessing Jaguar Abundance Using Remotely Triggered Cameras.’ (Wildlife Conservation Society: Bronx, NY.)
Srbek-Araujo, A. C., and Chiarello, A. G. (2013). Influence of camera-trap sampling design on mammal species capture rates and community structures in southeastern Brazil. Biota Neotropica 13, 51–62.
| Influence of camera-trap sampling design on mammal species capture rates and community structures in southeastern Brazil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stein, A. B., Fuller, T. K., and Marker, L. L. (2008). Opportunistic use of camera traps to assess habitat-specific mammal and bird diversity in northcentral Namibia. Biodiversity and Conservation 17, 3579–3587.
| Opportunistic use of camera traps to assess habitat-specific mammal and bird diversity in northcentral Namibia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sutter, J. V., Andersen, M. E., Bunnell, K. D., Canning, M. F., Clark, A. G., Dolsen, D. E., and Howe, F. P. (2005). Purpose of the Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy. Utah Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (CWCS). Utah Division of Wildlife Resources Publication Number 05-19. Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Salt Lake City, UT.
Tobler, M. W., Carrillo‐Percastegui, S. E., Leite‐Pitman, R., Mares, R., and Powell, G. (2008). An evaluation of camera traps for inventorying large- and medium-sized terrestrial forest mammals. Animal Conservation 11, 169–178.
| An evaluation of camera traps for inventorying large- and medium-sized terrestrial forest mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tobler, M. W., Carrillo-Percastegui, S. E., and Powell, G. (2009). Habitat use, activity patterns and use of mineral licks by five species of ungulate in south-eastern Peru. Journal of Tropical Ecology 25, 261–270.
| Habitat use, activity patterns and use of mineral licks by five species of ungulate in south-eastern Peru.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woodroffe, R., and Ginsberg, J. (1998). Edge effects and the extinction of populations inside protected areas. Science 280, 2126–2128.
| Edge effects and the extinction of populations inside protected areas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXkt1Glu7g%3D&md5=ad33e4d672b80c4fbf85e54219e792d3CAS |
Wright, S. J., Zeballos, H., Dominguez, I., Gallardo, M. M., Moreno, M. C., and Ibanez, R. (2000). Poachers alter mammal abundance, seed dispersal, and seed predation in a neotropical forest. Conservation Biology 14, 227–239.
| Poachers alter mammal abundance, seed dispersal, and seed predation in a neotropical forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yousefi, S. B. (2011). The role of wildlife documentaries in nature and wildlife conservation. Persian Wildlife Heritage Foundation Newsletter 1, 8.
