Road proximity and traffic flow perceived as potential predation risks: evidence from the Tibetan antelope in the Kekexili National Nature Reserve, China
Xinming Lian A D , Tongzuo Zhang B , Yifan Cao B , Jianping Su B D and Simon Thirgood C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, No. 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China.
B Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China.
C Macaulay Institute, Aberdeen, AB158QH, UK.
D Corresponding authors. Email: lianxinming@gmail.com; jpsu@nwipb.ac.cn
Wildlife Research 38(2) 141-146 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR10158
Submitted: 7 September 2010 Accepted: 15 February 2011 Published: 20 April 2011
Abstract
Context: The risk-disturbance hypothesis predicts that animals exhibit risk-avoidance behaviours when exposed to human disturbance because they perceive the disturbance as a predatory threat.
Aims: This study aimed to examine whether Tibetan antelopes (Pantholops hodgsoni) exhibit risk-avoidance behaviour with proximity to a major highway and with increasing traffic flow consistent with the risk-disturbance hypothesis.
Methods: Focal-animal sampling was used to observe the behaviour of Tibetan antelopes. The behaviours were categorised as foraging, vigilance, resting, moving, or other. The time, frequency, and duration of foraging and vigilance were calculated.
Key results: As distance from the road increased, time spent foraging and foraging duration increased while foraging frequency, time spent being vigilant and vigilance frequency decreased, indicating that there is a risk perception associated with roads. Tibetan antelopes presented more risk-avoidance behaviours during high-traffic periods compared with low-traffic periods.
Conclusions: Tibetan antelopes exhibited risk-avoidance behaviour towards roads that varied with proximity and traffic levels, which is consistent with the risk-disturbance hypothesis.
Implications: The consequences of risk-avoidance behaviour should be reflected in wildlife management by considering human disturbance and road design.
References
Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behaviour: sampling methods. Behaviour 49, 227–266.| Observational study of behaviour: sampling methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaE2c7mtlWmsQ%3D%3D&md5=505d46579e90be6b4ea8f1b0c3ac4875CAS | 4597405PubMed |
Andrews, A. (1990). Fragmentation of habitat by roads and utility corridors: a review. Australian Zoologist 26, 130–141.
Burger, J., Safina, C., and Gochfeld, M. (2000). Factors affecting vigilance in springbok: importance of vegetative cover, location in herd, and herd size. Acta Ethologica 2, 97–104.
| Factors affecting vigilance in springbok: importance of vegetative cover, location in herd, and herd size.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cao, Y., Su, J., Lian, X., Zhang, T., and Cui, Q. (2008). Food habits of Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni) in the Kekexili Nature Reserve. Acta Theriologica Sinica 28, 14–19.
Childress, M. J., and Lung, M. A. (2003). Predation risk, gender and the group size effect: does elk vigilance depend upon the behaviour of conspecifics? Animal Behaviour 66, 389–398.
| Predation risk, gender and the group size effect: does elk vigilance depend upon the behaviour of conspecifics?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Delm, M. (1990). Vigilance for predators: detection and dilution effects. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 26, 337–342.
| Vigilance for predators: detection and dilution effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Duchesne, M., Côté, S., and Barrette, C. (2000). Responses of woodland caribou to winter ecotourism in the Charlevoix Biosphere Reserve, Canada. Biological Conservation 96, 311–317.
| Responses of woodland caribou to winter ecotourism in the Charlevoix Biosphere Reserve, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dyck, M., and Baydack, R. (2004). Vigilance behaviour of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in the context of wildlife-viewing activities at Churchill, Manitoba, Canada. Biological Conservation 116, 343–350.
| Vigilance behaviour of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in the context of wildlife-viewing activities at Churchill, Manitoba, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Elgar, M. A. (1989). Predator vigilance and group size in mammals and birds: a critical review of the empirical evidence. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 64, 13–33.
| Predator vigilance and group size in mammals and birds: a critical review of the empirical evidence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaL1M3kslKltQ%3D%3D&md5=adbae038bf5c185bc8203c57d1d08ea6CAS | 2655726PubMed |
Forman, R., and Alexander, L. (1998). Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29, 207–231.
| Roads and their major ecological effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forman, R. T. T., and Deblinger, R. D. (2000). The ecological road-effect zone of a Massachusetts (USA) suburban highway. Conservation Biology 14, 36–46.
| The ecological road-effect zone of a Massachusetts (USA) suburban highway.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frid, A., and Dill, L. (2002). Human-caused disturbance stimuli as a form of predation risk. Conservation Ecology 6, 11.
Gagnon, J., Theimer, T., Dodd, N., Manzo, A., and Schweinsburg, R. (2007). Effects of traffic on elk use of wildlife underpasses in Arizona. The Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 2324–2328.
| Effects of traffic on elk use of wildlife underpasses in Arizona.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gavin, S., and Komers, P. (2006). Do pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) perceive roads as a predation risk? Canadian Journal of Zoology 84, 1775–1780.
| Do pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) perceive roads as a predation risk?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldsmith, A. (1990). Vigilance behavior of pronghorns in different habitats. Journal of Mammalogy 71, 460–462.
| Vigilance behavior of pronghorns in different habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Guo, K. (1996). Vegetation. In ‘Physical Environment of Hoh Xil Region, Qinghai’. (Eds B. Li, G. Gu and S. Li.) pp. 100–118. (Science Press: Beijing.)
Hopewell, L., Rossiter, R., Blower, E., Leaver, L., and Goto, K. (2005). Grazing and vigilance by Soay sheep on Lundy island: influence of group size, terrain and the distribution of vegetation. Behavioural Processes 70, 186–193.
| Grazing and vigilance by Soay sheep on Lundy island: influence of group size, terrain and the distribution of vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2MvmtFCnsg%3D%3D&md5=21f03cda365ba1e4f79b3b86d6f8ba99CAS | 15963661PubMed |
IUCN (2010). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. Available at http://www.iucnredlist.org [accessed 19 December 2010].
Li, Z., Jiang, Z., and Beauchamp, G. (2009). Vigilance in Przewalski’s gazelle: effects of sex, predation risk and group size. Journal of Zoology 277, 302–308.
| Vigilance in Przewalski’s gazelle: effects of sex, predation risk and group size.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lian, X., Su, J., Zhang, T., and Cao, Y. (2005). The characteristics of social groups of the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni) in the Kekexili region. Acta Ecologica Sinica 25, 1341–1346.
Lian, X., Zhang, T., Cao, Y., Su, J., and Thirgood, S. (2007). Group size effects on foraging and vigilance in migratory Tibetan antelope. Behavioural Processes 76, 192–197.
| Group size effects on foraging and vigilance in migratory Tibetan antelope.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17582704PubMed |
Martin, J., and Réale, D. (2008). Animal temperament and human disturbance: implications for the response of wildlife to tourism. Behavioural Processes 77, 66–72.
| Animal temperament and human disturbance: implications for the response of wildlife to tourism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1c7jslyhtQ%3D%3D&md5=6e7687220100e79fa69cac2deb037cc4CAS | 17683881PubMed |
Murphy, S., and Curatolo, J. (1987). Activity budgets and movement rates of caribou encountering pipelines, roads, and traffic in northern Alaska. Canadian Journal of Zoology 65, 2483–2490.
| Activity budgets and movement rates of caribou encountering pipelines, roads, and traffic in northern Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ng, S., Dole, J., Sauvajot, R., Riley, S., and Valone, T. (2004). Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California. Biological Conservation 115, 499–507.
| Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Orłowski, G., and Nowak, L. (2006). Factors influencing mammal roadkills in the agricultural landscape of south-western Poland. Polish Journal of Ecology 54, 283–294.
Ottoni, E. B. (2000). EthoLog 2.2: a tool for the transcription and timing of behavior observation sessions. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 32, 446–449.
| EthoLog 2.2: a tool for the transcription and timing of behavior observation sessions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3cvnvV2kug%3D%3D&md5=dba91c79a555dfed522bb69a5bf83793CAS |
Pelletier, F. (2006). Effects of tourist activities on ungulate behaviour in a mountain protected area. Journal of Mountain Ecology 8, 15–19.
Reimers, E., Dahle, B., Eftestøl, S., Colman, J., and Gaare, E. (2007). Effects of a power line on migration and range use of wild reindeer. Biological Conservation 134, 484–494.
| Effects of a power line on migration and range use of wild reindeer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roberts, G. (1996). Why individual vigilance declines as group size increases. Animal Behaviour 51, 1077–1086.
| Why individual vigilance declines as group size increases.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schaller, G. B. (Ed.) (1998). ‘Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe.’ (University Chicago Press: Chicago, IL.)
Stockwell, C. A., Bateman, G. C., and Berger, J. (1991). Conflicts in national parks: a case study of helicopters and bighorn sheep time budgets at the grand canyon. Biological Conservation 56, 317–328.
| Conflicts in national parks: a case study of helicopters and bighorn sheep time budgets at the grand canyon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Trombulak, S., and Frissell, C. (2000). Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology 14, 18–30.
| Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Underhill, J., and Angold, P. (2000). Effects of roads on wildlife in an intensively modified landscape. Environmental Reviews 8, 21–39.
| Effects of roads on wildlife in an intensively modified landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wakefield, S., and Attum, O. (2006). The effects of human visits on the use of a waterhole by endangered ungulates. Journal of Arid Environments 65, 668–672.
| The effects of human visits on the use of a waterhole by endangered ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wolff, J. O., and Horn, T. V. (2003). Vigilance and foraging patterns of American elk during the rut in habitats with and without predators. Canadian Journal of Zoology 81, 266–271.
| Vigilance and foraging patterns of American elk during the rut in habitats with and without predators.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Xia, L., Yang, Q., Li, Z., Wu, Y., and Feng, Z. (2007). The effect of the Qinghai–Tibet railway on the migration of Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsonii in Hoh-xil National Nature Reserve, China. Oryx 41, 352–357.
| The effect of the Qinghai–Tibet railway on the migration of Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsonii in Hoh-xil National Nature Reserve, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yang, Q., and Xia, L. (2008). Tibetan wildlife is getting used to the railway. Nature 452, 810–811.
| Tibetan wildlife is getting used to the railway.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXkvVSjur8%3D&md5=28d4d68ca90f63aad4cb1a1f00295329CAS | 18421324PubMed |
Zhang, L. (1996). Climate. In ‘Physical Environment of Hoh Xil region, Qinghai’. (Eds B. Li, G. Gu and S. Li.) pp. 16–46. (Science Press: Beijing.)
Zheng, S. (Ed.) (1994). ‘Fauna of Rare and Endangered Species of Vertebrates in Northwest China.’ (China Forestry Publishing: Beijing.)
