Free Standard AU & NZ Shipping For All Book Orders Over $80!
Register      Login
Wildlife Research Wildlife Research Society
Ecology, management and conservation in natural and modified habitats
Shopping Cart: ( empty )
You are here: Home > Journals > WR > WR08172
REVIEW
Contents Vol 36(5)

Characteristics of tree hollows used by Australian birds and bats

Ross L. Goldingay
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

School of Environmental Science & Management, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia. Email: ross.goldingay@scu.edu.au

Wildlife Research 36(5) 394-409 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR08172
Submitted: 9 December 2008  Accepted: 28 April 2009   Published: 21 July 2009

Abstract

Many hundreds of species of wildlife worldwide are dependent on tree hollows (cavities) for their survival. I reviewed the published literature for hollow-using Australian birds and microbats to document their tree-hollow requirements and to guide future research and management. Such information is vital to the conservation of these species. The hollow requirements of only 35 of 114 hollow-using bird species and 15 of 42 hollow-using microbat species were documented in some detail. This overall paucity of information limits the ability to manage for the future requirements of species. However, some generalisations can guide management until further studies are conducted. Most species used a variety of available tree species, and the extensive use of dead trees probably reflects the high likelihood of these trees containing hollows. Birds (other than large parrots) and bats chose hollow entrances of a size close to body width. Large parrots require large hollows, with a preference for large vertical spouts and trunk hollows. Few birds or bats demonstrated an absolute requirement for high (>10 m) tree hollows, with most (70%) using some hollows with entrances ≤5 m above ground. Temperature has been postulated to influence roost selection among microbats because it enables passive rewarming from torpor and there is some evidence from Australian bats to support this. Many studies suggest a future shortage of hollow-bearing trees. Currently, artificial hollows appear to be the most likely interim solution to address this. Knowledge of the natural hollow requirements of species can be used to refine artificial-hollow designs. An increase in research effort is needed to address the many gaps in knowledge that currently exist. Priorities for research include (1) many additional studies to document the characteristics of the hollow-bearing trees used by species of microbat, (2) the need to conduct long-term bioregional studies of hollow-bearing tree attrition to help identify where management responses are most needed and (3) investigating whether fire plays a significant role in the creation of tree hollows of a range of size classes and therefore may have a management use. Such information has broad relevance because it will provide ecological insight that can be applied to the management of hollow-using birds and bats elsewhere in the world.


Acknowledgements

The comments of Brendan Taylor, Geoff Smith, Andrea Taylor, Stephen Murphy and an anonymous referee helped improve this paper. I am very grateful to David Hollands, Brad Law, David Parer and Liz Parer-Cook for allowing me to use several of their photos. Brisbane City Council is thanked for supporting my research that has provided background to this paper.


References

Abbott, I. , and Whitford, K. (2002). Conservation of vertebrate fauna using hollows in forests of south-west Western Australia: strategic risk assessment in relation to ecology, policy, planning, and operations management. Pacific Conservation Biology 7, 240–255.
Beruldsen G. (2003). ‘Australian Birds their Nests and Eggs.’ (G. Beruldsen: Brisbane.)

Beyer, G. L. , and Goldingay, R. L. (2006). The value of nest boxes in the research and management of Australian hollow-using arboreal marsupials. Wildlife Research 33, 161–174.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Calder T. G. , Golding B. G. , and Manderson A. D. (1983). Management for arboreal species in the Wombat State Forest. Environmental report no. 16. Graduate School of Environmental Science, Monash University, Melbourne.

Cameron, M. (2006). Nesting habitat of the glossy black-cockatoo in central New South Wales. Biological Conservation 127, 402–410.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Churchill S. (1998). ‘Australian Bats.’ (New Holland: Sydney.)

Commonwealth of Australia (2006). Background and implementation information for the south-eastern red-tailed black-cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus banksii graptogyne recovery plan. Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Canberra.

Compton, A. , and Johnston, P. M. (1983). Observations of the sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous saccolaimus Temminck (Chiroptera: Emballonuridae), in the Townsville region of Queensland. Australian Mammalogy 6, 83–87.
Gibbons P. , and Lindenmayer D. (2002). ‘Tree Hollows and Wildlife Conservation in Australia.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Gibbons, P. , Lindenmayer, D. B. , Barry, S. C. , and Tanton, M. T. (2000a). Hollow formation in eucalypts from temperate forests in southeastern Australia. Pacific Conservation Biology 6, 218–228.
Higgins P. J. (Ed.) (1999). ‘Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird.’ (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)

Higgins P. J. , and Peter J. M. (Eds) (2002). ‘Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Vol. 6. Pardalotes to shrike-thrushes.’ (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)

Hill, K. D. , and Johnson, L. A. S. (1995). Systematic studies in the eucalypts 7. A revision of the bloodwoods, genus Corymbia (Myrtacaeae). Telopea 6, 185–504.
Hollands D. (2008). ‘Owls, Frogmouths and Nightjars of Australia.’ (Bloomings Books: Melbourne.)

Hooge, P. N. , Stanback, M. T. , and Koenig, W. D. (1999). Nest-site selection in the acorn woodpecker. The Auk 116, 45–54.
Kavanagh R. P. (1997). Ecology and management of large forest owls in south-eastern Australia. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney, Australia.

Kavanagh R. P. (2002). Conservation and management of large forest owls in southeastern Australia. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen and I. Taylor.) pp. 201–219. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Kerth, G. , Weissmann, K. , and Kőnig, B. (2001). Day roost selection in female Bechstein’s bats (Myotis bechsteinii): a field experiment to determine the influence of roost temperature. Oecologia 126, 1–9.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Kunz T. H. , and Lumsden L. F. (2003). Ecology of cavity and foliage roosting bats. In ‘Bat Ecology’. (Eds T. H. Kunz and M. B. Fenton.) pp. 3–89. (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL.)

Laurance, W. F. , Delamonica, P. , Laurance, S. G. , Vasconcelos, H. L. , and Lovejoy, T. E. (2000). Rainforest fragmentation kills big trees. Nature 404, 836.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | CAS | PubMed | Lindenmayer D. B. , and Franklin J. F. (Eds) (2003). ‘Towards Forest Sustainability.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Lindenmayer, D. B. , Cunningham, R. B. , Tanton, M. T. , and Smith, A. P. (1990). The conservation of arboreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia: II. The loss of trees with hollows and its implications for the conservation of Leadbeater’s possum, Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy (Marsupialia: Petauridae). Biological Conservation 54, 133–145.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Mackowski C. M. (1984). The ontogeny of hollows in blackbutt, Eucalyptus pilularis, and its relevance to the management of forests for possums, gliders and timber. In ‘Possums and Gliders’. (Eds A. P. Smith and I. D. Hume.) pp. 517–525. (Australian Mammal Society: Sydney.)

Mannan, R. W. , Meslow, E. C. , and Wight, H. M. (1980). Use of snags by birds in Douglas fir forests. Journal of Wildlife Management 44, 787–797.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Marchant S. , and Higgins P. J. (eds) (1990). ‘Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Vol. 1. Ratites to Ducks.’ (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)

Maron, M. (2005). Agricultural change and paddock tree loss: implications for an endangered subspecies of red-tailed black-cockatoo. Ecological Management & Restoration 6, 206–211.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Mooney N. (1997). Habitat and seasonality of nesting masked owls in Tasmania. In ‘Australian Raptor Studies II, Birds Australia Monograph 3’. (Eds G. Czechura and S. Debus.) pp. 34–39. (Birds Australia: Melbourne.)

Mooney P. A. , and Pedler L. P. (2005). Recovery Plan for the South Australian subspecies of the glossy black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus): 2005–2010. South Australian Department for the Environment and Heritage, Kingscote.

Murphy, S. (2002). Observations of the ‘critically endangered’ bare-rumped sheathtail bat Saccolaimus saccolaimus Temminck (Chiroptera: Emballonuridae) on Cape York Peninsula, Queensland. Australian Mammalogy 23, 185–187.
Nowak R. M. (1999). ‘Walker’s Mammals of the World.’ 6th edn. (John Hopkins University Press: London.)

O’Neill, M. G. , and Taylor, R. J. (1989). Feeding ecology of Tasmanian bat assemblages. Australian Journal of Ecology 14, 19–31.
OBPRT (Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team) (2006). ‘Background and Implementation Information for the Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Plan.’ (Department of Primary Industries and Water: Hobart.)

Oldroyd, B. P. , Lawler, S. H. , and Crozier, R. H. (1994). Do feral honey bees (Apis mellifera) and regent parrots (Polytelis anthopeplus) compete for nest sites? Australian Journal of Ecology 19, 444–450.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Quin B. R. , and Baker-Gabb D. J. (1993). Conservation and management of the turquoise parrot Neophema pulchella in north-east Victoria. Arthur Rylah Institute Technical Report Series No. 125, Department of Conservation and Environment, Melbourne.

Renton, K. (2004). Agonistic interactions of nesting and non-breeding macaws. The Condor 106, 354–362.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Simpson K. , and Day N. (1993). ‘Field Guide to the Birds of Australia.’ (Viking Penguin: Melbourne.)

Smith, G. T. (1991). Breeding ecology of the western long-billed corella, Cacatua pastinator pastinator. Wildlife Research 18, 91–110.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Taylor I. R. , Kirsten I. , and Peake P. (2002). Habitat, breeding and conservation of the barking owl Ninox connivens in northeastern Victoria, Australia. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen and I. Taylor.) pp. 116–124. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Taylor, R. J. , and Chisholm, R. A. (2005). The occurrence of hollows in eucalypts and ironwood Erythrophleum chlorostachys in the Gulf region of the Northern Territory and its implications for timber harvesting. Pacific Conservation Biology 11, 57–63.
Van Dyck S. , and Strahan R. (2008). ‘The Mammals of Australia.’ 3rd edn. (Reed New Holland: Sydney.)

Vaughan, T. A. , and O’Shea, T. J. (1976). Roosting ecology of the pallid bat, Antrozous pallidus. Journal of Mammalogy 57, 19–42.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ward, S. J. (2000). The efficacy of nest boxes versus spotlighting for detecting feathertail gliders. Wildlife Research 27, 75–79.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wesołowski, T. (2007). Lessons from long-term hole-nester studies in a primeval temperate forest. Journal fur Ornithologie 148(Suppl. 2), 395–405.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Whitford, K. R. (2001). Dimensions of tree hollows used by birds and mammals in the in jarrah forest: improving the dimensional description of potentially usable hollows. CALMScience 3, 499–511.


Whitford, K. R. (2002). Hollows in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and marri (Corymbia calophylla) trees I. Hollow sizes, tree attributes and ages. Forest Ecology and Management 160, 201–214.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Whitford, K. R. , and Williams, M. R. (2002). Hollows in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and marri (Corymbia calophylla) trees II. Selecting trees to retain for hollow dependent fauna. Forest Ecology and Management 160, 215–232.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wiebe, K. L. (2001). Microclimate of tree cavity nests: is it important for reproductive success in northern flickers? The Auk 118, 412–421.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Woinarski, J. C. Z. , and Bulman, C. (1985). Ecology and breeding biology of the forty-spotted pardalote and other pardalotes on North Bruny Island. Emu 85, 106–120.


Wormington, K. R. , Lamb, D. , McCallum, H. I. , and Moloney, D. J. (2003). The characteristics of six species of living hollow-bearing trees and their importance for arboreal marsupials in the dry sclerophyll forests of southeast Queensland, Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 182, 75–92.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |