Fumigation of rabbit warrens with chloropicrin produces poor welfare outcomes – a review
Clive A. Marks
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
Nocturnal Wildlife Research Pty Ltd, PO Box 2126, Wattletree Road Post Office, East Malvern, Vic. 3145, Australia. Email: camarks@attglobal.net
Wildlife Research 36(4) 342-352 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR06128
Submitted: 6 October 2006 Accepted: 15 September 2008 Published: 1 June 2009
Abstract
Chloropicrin (CLPN) is used in Australia and New Zealand as a warren fumigant for the control of exotic European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) but is no longer registered for this purpose in the United States or the European Union. This review summarises the mammalian toxicology and clinical records from 56 accounts where signs, symptoms and pathology have been related to a range of CLPN concentrations. The approach follows a general principle where an assessment of the humaneness of vertebrate pest control techniques should be firstly based upon a thorough synopsis of published behavioural, physiological and pathological impacts. Chloropicrin produces intense irritation by stimulation of trigeminal nerves and brief exposures to concentrations of ≤1 ppm can severely irritate the eyes and cause lacrimation in mammals. Beyond 8 ppm, exposures are reported to be painful and incapacitating in humans. Mammals experience an array of common signs and symptoms including: headache, nausea, diarrhoea, laboured breathing, decrease in spontaneous motor activity, salivation, rhinorrhea, blood stains around the nose and mouth, painful irritation of mucous membranes, profuse lacrimation, audible obstruction of respiration and distress vocalisation. Acute pathological changes from CLPN exposure can cause death in mammals from pulmonary oedema, bronchopneumonia, emphysema or general destructive changes and necrosis of the small and medium bronchi. Overall, the signs, symptoms and pathology arising from CLPN exposure at any airborne concentration beyond 0.3 ppm indicate that it must be assumed to cause suffering in all mammals. Exposure to CLPN that is not acutely lethal may debilitate rabbits and other species and cause a protracted death over hours or days. To produce a humane death a fumigant must be non-irritating, have an initial depressive action on the central nervous system and/or produce a rapid death without protracted distress while having little ability to cause debilitation or chronic injury. Given that CLPN has none of these characteristics, it cannot be considered to be acceptably humane.
Acknowledgements
This review was commissioned by the Bureau of Animal Welfare (Victoria) with funds provided to the Animal Welfare Science Centre. The author thanks Dr John Barnett and Dr Ellen Jongman for their efforts to initiate this review. Ms Jane Malcolm’s valuable constructive feedback, proof reading and support was a big help throughout. The review benefited from discussions and suggestions from Dr Kate Blaszak, Dr Steve Tate, Dr Ellen Jongman and Dr Charles Hackman. Ms Sue Darby collected some important references for the review. The paper benefited from the constructive criticisms and suggestions made by three anonymous referees and editorial staff of Wildlife Research. I thank John Eisemann (United States Department of Agriculture, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins), Eileen Mahoney (Pesticide Registration Branch, California), Helen Dunnett (Pesticide Information, European Crop Protection Association), Dr Eugene Georgiades (Environmental Risk Management Authority, New Zealand) for clarifying the registration status of chloropicrin as a vertebrate pest control product in their country or region.
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