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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Contents Vol 48(2)

Diagnosis, extent, impacts, and management of subsoil constraints in the northern grains cropping region of Australia

Y. P. Dang A O , R. C. Dalal B , S. R. Buck C , B. Harms B , R. Kelly D , Z. Hochman E , G. D. Schwenke F , A. J. W. Biggs A , N. J. Ferguson G , S. Norrish H , R. Routley I , M. McDonald J , C. Hall K , D. K. Singh D , I. G. Daniells F , R. Farquharson L , W. Manning M , S. Speirs N , H. S. Grewal H , P. Cornish H , N. Bodapati B and D. Orange A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management, Toowoomba, Qld 4350, Australia.

B Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management, Indooroopilly, Qld 4068, Australia.

C Queensland Primary Industries and Fisheries, Biloela, Qld 4715, Australia.

D Queensland Primary Industries & Fisheries, Toowoomba, Qld 4350, Australia.

E CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems/APSRU, St Lucia, Qld 4067, Australia.

F NSW Department of Primary Industries, 4 Marsden Park Road, Callala, NSW 2340, Australia.

G NSW Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 3, Tumut, NSW 2720, Australia.

H The University of Western Sydney, Penrith South DC, NSW 1797, Australia.

I Queensland Primary Industries and Fisheries, Emerald, Qld 4720, Australia.

J Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia.

K CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems/APSRU, Toowoomba, Qld 4350, Australia.

L The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.

M NSW Department of Primary Industries, Gunnedah, NSW 2380, Australia.

N NSW Department of Primary Industries, Dubbo, NSW 2830, Australia.

O Corresponding author. Email: Yash.Dang@derm.qld.gov.au

Australian Journal of Soil Research 48(2) 105-119 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR09074
Submitted: 26 April 2009  Accepted: 4 December 2009   Published: 31 March 2010

Abstract

Productivity of grain crops grown under dryland conditions in north-eastern Australia depends on efficient use of rainfall and available soil moisture accumulated in the period preceding sowing. However, adverse subsoil conditions including high salinity, sodicity, nutrient imbalances, acidity, alkalinity, and high concentrations of chloride (Cl) and sodium (Na) in many soils of the region restrict ability of crop roots to access this stored water and nutrients. Planning for sustainable cropping systems requires identification of the most limiting constraint and understanding its interaction with other biophysical factors. We found that the primary effect of complex and variable combinations of subsoil constraints was to increase the crop lower limit (CLL), thereby reducing plant available water. Among chemical subsoil constraints, subsoil Cl concentration was a more effective indicator of reduced water extraction and reduced grain yields than either salinity or sodicity (ESP). Yield penalty due to high subsoil Cl was seasonally variable, with more in-crop rainfall (ICR) resulting in less negative impact. A conceptual model to determine realistic yield potential in the presence of subsoil Cl was developed from a significant positive linear relationship between CLL and subsoil Cl:

Since grid sampling of soil to identify distribution of subsoil Cl, both spatially across landscape and within soil profile, is time-consuming and expensive, we found that electromagnetic induction, coupled with yield mapping and remote sensing of vegetation offers potential to rapidly identify possible subsoil Cl at paddock or farm scale.

Plant species and cultivars were evaluated for their adaptations to subsoil Cl. Among winter crops, barley and triticale, followed by bread wheat, were more tolerant of high subsoil Cl concentrations than durum wheat. Chickpea and field pea showed a large decrease in yield with increasing subsoil Cl concentrations and were most sensitive of the crops tested. Cultivars of different winter crops showed minor differences in sensitivity to increasing subsoil Cl concentrations. Water extraction potential of oilseed crops was less affected than cereals with increasing levels of subsoil Cl concentrations. Among summer crops, water extraction potential of millet, mungbean, and sesame appears to be more sensitive to subsoil Cl than that of sorghum and maize; however, the differences were significant only to 0.7 m. Among pasture legumes, lucerne was more tolerant to high subsoil Cl concentrations than the others studied.

Surface applied gypsum significantly improved wheat grain yield on soils with ESP >6 in surface soil (0–0.10 m). Subsurface applied gypsum at 0.20–0.30 m depth did not affect grain yield in the first year of application; however, there was a significant increase in grain yield in following years. Better subsoil P and Zn partially alleviated negative impact of high subsoil Cl. Potential savings from improved N fertilisation decisions for paddocks with high subsoil Cl are estimated at ~$AU10 million per annum.

Additional keywords: subsoil Cl concentration, dryland cropping, plant available water capacity, plant adaptation, gypsum.


Acknowledgements

We are indebted to our collaborative growers and their families in providing sites, managing the trials and providing their generous support during field days. We thank the Grains Research & Development Corporation for partial funding of this study. We also thank the following agencies for personnel and infrastructure support: Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management, Queensland Primary Industries and Fisheries, CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Universities of Queensland and Western Sydney, NSW Department of Primary Industries, and NSW Department of Natural Resources. Thanks are also due to Michael Mann, Jim Perfrement, Dougal Pottie, Tony Cox, Anthony Mitchell, and Russell Carty for helping with data collection, Dr Phil Price, Dr David Freebairn, Dr Greg Thomas, Mr Geoff Titmarsh and anonymous reviewers for comments and valuable suggestions.


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