Phosphorus status and saturation in soils that drain into the Peel Inlet and Harvey Estuary of Western Australia
David Weaver
A C and Robert Summers B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Western Australia, 444 Albany Highway, Albany, WA 6330, Australia.
B Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Western Australia, 45 Mandurah Tce, Mandurah, WA 6210, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: david.weaver@dpird.wa.gov.au
Soil Research 59(7) 699-714 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR20259
Submitted: 7 September 2020 Accepted: 22 March 2021 Published: 23 June 2021
Journal Compilation © CSIRO 2021 Open Access CC BY
Abstract
The Peel–Harvey estuarine system in Western Australia's south-west is affected by poor water quality, algal blooms, and fish kills. Phosphorus (P) discharge from agricultural activities is the main source of poor water quality. The catchment’s soils are naturally infertile, but P application has increased P fertility. This paper draws on and undertakes a meta-analysis of 20 200 surface (0–10 cm) and profile (to 100 cm depth) soil samples collected in the period 1983–2018. Soil P content was high, with 70% of samples with Colwell P content in excess of agronomic requirements; Production is more likely limited by low soil pH(CaCl2) and low K (92% and 67% of paddocks respectively). Strong P stratification in the soil is evident, particularly topsoil; sandy soils are saturated to depth; and clay soils show signs of P saturation in the topsoil. Management of P in sandy soil near the estuary is a high priority as is P stratification in highly P retentive soil. Soil P stocks increased since clearing compared with uncleared soils (1221 kg ha–1 m–1 and 285–694 kg ha–1 m–1, respectively). Thirteen percent of samples had P content in excess of agronomic requirements in 1983, rising slowly to 69% in 2018. Landholder practices need to be analysed in detail to confirm if this accumulation occurs everywhere or is only confined to actively farmed land.
Keywords: eutrophication, P saturation, P management, P loss, P efficiency, water quality, Peel–Harvey, estuary health.
References
Allen DG, Jeffery RC (1990) ‘Methods for analysis of phosphorus in Western Australian soils. Report of investigation No: 37 March 1990. Agricultural Chemistry Laboratory, Chemistry Centre of Western Australia.’Arkell PT (1989) Improved fertilizing practices on the Peel-Harvey catchment. Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia, Series 4 30, 5 https://researchlibrary.agric.wa.gov.au/journal_agriculture4/vol30/iss3/5
Asher C, Loneragan J (1967) Response of plants to phosphate concentration in solution culture I. Growth and phosphorus content. Soil Science 103, 225–233.
| Response of plants to phosphate concentration in solution culture I. Growth and phosphorus content.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barlow K, Nash D, Turral H, Grayson R (2003) Phosphorus uptake and release in surface drains. Agricultural Water Management 63, 109–123.
| Phosphorus uptake and release in surface drains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barlow K, Nash D, Grayson R, Fenton J (2004) Factors affecting the role of irrigation drains as sources or sinks of phosphorus. Irrigation in a total catchment context-sharing the river. Proceedings 2nd ICID Asian Regional Conference on Irrigation and Drainage, Australia, Moama NSW, 14–17 March, 23–29. Available at http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.542.6481&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Barrow N, Barman P, Debnath A (2018) Three residual benefits of applying phosphate fertilizer. Soil Science Society of America Journal 82, 1168–1176.
| Three residual benefits of applying phosphate fertilizer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Birch P (1982) Phosphorus export from coastal plain drainage into the Peel-Harvey estuarine system of Western Australia. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 33, 23–32.
| Phosphorus export from coastal plain drainage into the Peel-Harvey estuarine system of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blair G, Chinoim N, Lefroy R, Anderson G, Crocker G (1991) A soil sulfur test for pastures and crops. Soil Research 29, 619–626.
| A soil sulfur test for pastures and crops.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blakemore L, Searle P, Daly B (1977) ‘Methods for chemical analysis of soils.’ (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research: Lower Hutt, New Zealand)
Borggaard OK, Szilas C, Gimsing AL, Rasmussen LH (2004) Estimation of soil phosphate adsorption capacity by means of a pedotransfer function. Geoderma 118, 55–61.
| Estimation of soil phosphate adsorption capacity by means of a pedotransfer function.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brennan R, Bolland M, Jeffery R, Allen D (1994) Phosphorus adsorption by a range of Western Australian soils related to soil properties. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 25, 2785–2795.
| Phosphorus adsorption by a range of Western Australian soils related to soil properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burkitt L, Moody P, Gourley C, Hannah M (2002) A simple phosphorus buffering index for Australian soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 40, 497–513.
| A simple phosphorus buffering index for Australian soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cassidy R, Thomas I, Higgins A, Bailey JS, Jordan P (2019) A carrying capacity framework for soil phosphorus and hydrological sensitivity from farm to catchment scales. The Science of the Total Environment 687, 277–286.
| A carrying capacity framework for soil phosphorus and hydrological sensitivity from farm to catchment scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31207517PubMed |
Clarendon SDV, Weaver DM, Davies PM, Coles NA (2019) The influence of particle size and mineralogy on both phosphorus retention and release by streambed sediments. Journal of Soils and Sediments 19, 2624–2633.
| The influence of particle size and mineralogy on both phosphorus retention and release by streambed sediments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Colwell J (1965) An automatic procedure for the determination of phosphorus in sodium hydrogen carbonate extracts of soils. Chemistry & Industry 22, 893–895.
Cope J, Rouse R (1973) Interpretation of soil test results. In ‘Soil Testing and Plant Analysis.’ (Eds L Walsh and J Beaton) pp. 35–54. (Soil Science Society of America, Inc: Madison, Wisconsin USA)
Crawford D, Mitchard B, Burton W (2020) Recent Trends in Soil Fertility Across the Farms of East Gippsland. Soil Research 58, 561–575.
| Recent Trends in Soil Fertility Across the Farms of East Gippsland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
DA Lord and Associates (1998) ‘Dawesville channel monitoring programme. Waters and Rivers Commission Report WRT 28’. (Water and Rivers Commission of WA: Perth Western Australia)
Dari B, Nair VD, Sharpley AN, Kleinman P, Franklin D, Harris WG (2018) Consistency of the threshold phosphorus saturation ratio across a wide geographic range of acid soils. Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment 1, 180028
| Consistency of the threshold phosphorus saturation ratio across a wide geographic range of acid soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dougherty W, Nash D, Chittleborough D, Cox J, Fleming N (2006) Stratification, forms, and mobility of phosphorus in the topsoil of a Chromosol used for dairying. Australian Journal of Soil Research 44, 277–284.
| Stratification, forms, and mobility of phosphorus in the topsoil of a Chromosol used for dairying.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Environmental Protection Authority (2008) Water quality improvement plan for the rivers and estuary of the Peel–Harvey system–phosphorus management. Environmental Protection Authority, Perth, Western Australia. Available at https://www.epa.wa.gov.au/policies-guidance/water-quality-improvement-plan-rivers-and-estuary-peel-harvey-system—phosphorus
Gourley C, Weaver D, Simpson R, Aarons S, Hannah M, Peverill K (2019) The development and application of functions describing pasture yield responses to phosphorus, potassium and sulphur in Australia using meta-data analysis and derived soil-test calibration relationships. Crop and Pasture Science 70, 1065–1079.
| The development and application of functions describing pasture yield responses to phosphorus, potassium and sulphur in Australia using meta-data analysis and derived soil-test calibration relationships.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Helsel D, Hirsch R (1992) ‘Statistical Methods in Water Resources.’ (US Geological Survey: https//pubs.usgs.gov/twri/twri4a3/pdf/twri4a3-new.pdf)
Hintze JL, Nelson RD (1998) Violin Plots: A Box Plot-Density Trace Synergism. The American Statistician 52, 181–184.
Hodgkin E, Hamilton B (1993) Fertilizers and eutrophication in southwestern Australia setting the scene. Fertilizer Research 36, 95–103.
| Fertilizers and eutrophication in southwestern Australia setting the scene.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jarvie HP, Sharpley AN, Spears B, Buda AR, May L, Kleinman PJA (2013) Water Quality Remediation Faces Unprecedented Challenges from “Legacy Phosphorus”. Environmental Science & Technology 47, 8997–8998.
| Water Quality Remediation Faces Unprecedented Challenges from “Legacy Phosphorus”.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kauhanen K, Chambers J, D’souza F (2011) Report Card of Climate Change and Western Australian Aquatic Ecosystems. Report to NCCARF Brisbane.
Kinhill Engineers (1988) ‘Peel Inlet and Harvey Estuary Management Strategy: Environmental Review and Management Programme, Stage 2: Technical report.’ (The Depts. Agriculture and Marine and Harbours: Perth, Western Australia)
Kleinman P (2017) The persistent environmental relevance of soil phosphorus sorption saturation. Current Pollution Reports 3, 141–150.
| The persistent environmental relevance of soil phosphorus sorption saturation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kleinman P, Bryant R, Reid W (1999) Development of pedotransfer functions to quantify phosphorus saturation of agricultural soils. Journal of Environmental Quality 28, 2026–2030.
| Development of pedotransfer functions to quantify phosphorus saturation of agricultural soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McDowell R (2015) Relationship between Sediment Chemistry, Equilibrium Phosphorus Concentrations, and Phosphorus Concentrations at Base Flow in Rivers of the New Zealand National River Water Quality Network. Journal of Environmental Quality 44, 921–929.
| Relationship between Sediment Chemistry, Equilibrium Phosphorus Concentrations, and Phosphorus Concentrations at Base Flow in Rivers of the New Zealand National River Water Quality Network.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26024272PubMed |
McDowell RW, Moss RA, Gray CW, Smith LC, Sneath G (2021) Seventy years of data from the world’s longest grazed and irrigated pasture trials. Scientific Data 8, 53
| Seventy years of data from the world’s longest grazed and irrigated pasture trials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 33568642PubMed |
McGill R, Tukey J, Larsen W (1978) Variations of Box Plots. The American Statistician 32, 12–16.
McKergow L, Weaver D, Prosser I, Grayson R, Reed A (2003) Before and after riparian management sediment and nutrient exports from a small agricultural catchment, Western Australia. Journal of Hydrology 270, 253–272.
| Before and after riparian management sediment and nutrient exports from a small agricultural catchment, Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKergow L, Prosser I, Weaver D, Grayson R, Reed A (2006a) Performance of grass and eucalyptus riparian buffers in a pasture catchment, Western Australia, part 1 riparian hydrology. Hydrological Processes 20, 2309–2326.
| Performance of grass and eucalyptus riparian buffers in a pasture catchment, Western Australia, part 1 riparian hydrology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKergow L, Prosser I, Weaver D, Grayson R, Reed A (2006b) Performance of grass and eucalyptus riparian buffers in a pasture catchment, Western Australia, part 2 water quality. Hydrological Processes 20, 2327–2346.
| Performance of grass and eucalyptus riparian buffers in a pasture catchment, Western Australia, part 2 water quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moody P (2007) Interpretation of a single-point P buffering index for adjusting critical levels of the Colwell soil P test. Soil Research 45, 55–62.
| Interpretation of a single-point P buffering index for adjusting critical levels of the Colwell soil P test.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moody PW (2011) Environmental risk indicators for soil phosphorus status. Soil Research 49, 247–252.
| Environmental risk indicators for soil phosphorus status.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murphy J, Riley JP (1962) A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Analytica Chimica Acta 27, 31–36.
| A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nair VD (2014) Soil phosphorus saturation ratio for risk assessment in land use systems. Frontiers in Environmental Science 2, 6
| Soil phosphorus saturation ratio for risk assessment in land use systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nair V, Portier K, Graetz D, Walker M (2004) An environmental threshold for degree of phosphorus saturation in sandy soils. Journal of Environmental Quality 33, 107–113.
| An environmental threshold for degree of phosphorus saturation in sandy soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 14964364PubMed |
Nash D, Murdoch C (1997) Phosphorus in runoff from fertile dairy pastures. Australian Journal of Soil Research 35, 419–429.
| Phosphorus in runoff from fertile dairy pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nash D, Webb B, Hannah M, Adeloju S, Toifl M, Barlow K, Robertson F, Roddick F, Porter N (2007) Changes in nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in soil, soil water and surface run‐off following grading of irrigation bays used for intensive grazing. Soil Use and Management 23, 374–383.
| Changes in nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in soil, soil water and surface run‐off following grading of irrigation bays used for intensive grazing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ozanne P, Shaw T (1967) Phosphate sorption by soils as a measure of the phosphate requirement for pasture growth. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 18, 601–612.
| Phosphate sorption by soils as a measure of the phosphate requirement for pasture growth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peek CS, Arkell PT (1992) The Peel Harvey Fertilizer Extension Programme. In ‘Proceedings of the 5th Australian Soil Conservation Conference Perth 1990; Community Action, Landcare in the 1990’s. Ed Hamilton G, Howes KM, Attwater R. ’. (Western Australian Dept of Agriculture: Perth Western Australia)
Rayment G, Lyons D (2011) ‘Soil chemical methods - Australasia.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, Victoria)
Rivers MR (2012) Spatial and Temporal Variations and Patterns in Water and Nutrient Dynamics Within Agriculturally-dominated Watersheds in South West Australia. PhD, School of Environmental Systems Engineering and Centre of Excellence in Natural Resource Management, University of Western Australia
Rowe H, Withers P, Baas P, et al (2016) Integrating legacy soil phosphorus into sustainable nutrient management strategies for future food, bioenergy and water security. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 104, 393–412.
| Integrating legacy soil phosphorus into sustainable nutrient management strategies for future food, bioenergy and water security.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ruprecht J, Vitale S, Weaver D (2013) Nutrient export (phosphorus). Department of Agriculture and Food, Perth Western Australia. Available at https://researchlibrary.agric.wa.gov.au/books/12/
Russell EJ, Russell EW (1973) ‘Soil conditions and plant growth.’ (Longmans, Green: London)
Ryan MH, Tibbett M, Lambers H, Bicknell D, Brookes P, Barrett-Lennard EG, Ocampo C, Nicol D (2017) Pronounced surface stratification of soil phosphorus, potassium and sulfur under pastures upstream of a eutrophic wetland and estuarine system. Soil Research 55, 657–669.
| Pronounced surface stratification of soil phosphorus, potassium and sulfur under pastures upstream of a eutrophic wetland and estuarine system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sharpley AN, Withers PJ (1994) The environmentally-sound management of agricultural phosphorus. Fertilizer Research 39, 133–146.
| The environmentally-sound management of agricultural phosphorus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sharpley A, Kleinman P, Heathwaite A, Gburek W, Weld J, Folmar G (2008) Integrating contributing areas and indexing phosphorus loss from agricultural watersheds. Journal of Environmental Quality 37, 1488–1496.
| Integrating contributing areas and indexing phosphorus loss from agricultural watersheds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18574180PubMed |
Sims JT, Simard RR, Joern BC (1998) Phosphorus loss in agricultural drainage: Historical perspective and current research. Journal of Environmental Quality 27, 277–293.
| Phosphorus loss in agricultural drainage: Historical perspective and current research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sims JT, Maguire RO, Leytem AB, Gartley KL, Pautler MC (2002) Evaluation of Mehlich 3 as an Agric.-Environmental Soil Phosphorus Test for the Mid-Atlantic United States of America. Soil Science Society of America Journal 66, 2016–2032.
| Evaluation of Mehlich 3 as an Agric.-Environmental Soil Phosphorus Test for the Mid-Atlantic United States of America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | [In English]
Summers R, Guise N, Smirk D (1993) Bauxite residue (Red Mud) increases phosphorus retention in sandy soil catchments in Western Australia. Fertilizer Research 34, 85–94.
| Bauxite residue (Red Mud) increases phosphorus retention in sandy soil catchments in Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Summers R, Weaver D, Keipert N, Steele J (2014) Does Riparian Filtration Reduce Nutrient Movement in Sandy Agricultural Catchments? Environment and Natural Resources Research 4, 155–168.
| Does Riparian Filtration Reduce Nutrient Movement in Sandy Agricultural Catchments?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Summers R, Richards P, Weaver D, Rowe D (2020) Soil amendment and soil testing as nutrient reduction strategies for the Peel Integrated Water Initiative. Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development. Perth, Western Australia. Available at https://researchlibrary.agric.wa.gov.au/rmtr/401/
Tamm O (1922) Eine Methode zur Bestimmung de der anorganischen Komponente des Bodens. Meddelanden fran Statens skogsforsoksanstalt Stockholm 19, 387–404.
Tarkalson DD, Mikkelsen RL (2004) Runoff phosphorus losses as related to phosphorus source, application method, and application rate on a Piedmont soil. Journal of Environmental Quality 33, 1424–1430.
| Runoff phosphorus losses as related to phosphorus source, application method, and application rate on a Piedmont soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15254125PubMed |
Tian J, Boitt G, Black A, Wakelin S, Chen L, Cai K, Condron L (2019) Mass balance assessment of phosphorus dynamics in a fertilizer trial with 57 years of superphosphate application under irrigated grazed pasture. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 114, 33–44.
| Mass balance assessment of phosphorus dynamics in a fertilizer trial with 57 years of superphosphate application under irrigated grazed pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Truog E (1918) Soil Acidity I. It’s relation to the growth of plants. Soil Science 5, 169–196.
| Soil Acidity I. It’s relation to the growth of plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van der Ploeg RR, Böhm W, Kirkham MB (1999) On the Origin of the Theory of Mineral Nutrition of Plants and the Law of the Minimum. Soil Science Society of America Journal 63, 1055–1062.
| On the Origin of the Theory of Mineral Nutrition of Plants and the Law of the Minimum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vlahos S, Summers K, Bell D, Gilkes R (1989) Reducing Phosphorus leaching from sandy soils with red mud bauxite processing residues. Australian Journal of Soil Research 27, 651–662.
| Reducing Phosphorus leaching from sandy soils with red mud bauxite processing residues.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37, 29–38.
| An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ward S, Summers R (1993) Modifying sandy soils with the fine residue from bauxite refining to retain phosphorus and increase plant yield. Fertilizer Research 36, 151–156.
| Modifying sandy soils with the fine residue from bauxite refining to retain phosphorus and increase plant yield.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watmuff G, Reuter DJ, Speirs SD (2013) Methodologies for assembling and interrogating N, P, K, and S soil test calibrations for Australian cereal, oilseed and pulse crops. Crop and Pasture Science 64, 424–434.
| Methodologies for assembling and interrogating N, P, K, and S soil test calibrations for Australian cereal, oilseed and pulse crops.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weaver D, Reed A (1998) Patterns of nutrient status and fertiliser practice on soils of the south coast of Western Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 67, 37–53.
| Patterns of nutrient status and fertiliser practice on soils of the south coast of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weaver D, Summers R (2014) Fit-for-purpose phosphorus management do riparian buffers qualify in catchments with sandy soils? Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 186, 2867–2884.
| Fit-for-purpose phosphorus management do riparian buffers qualify in catchments with sandy soils?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24395552PubMed |
Weaver DM, Wong MTF (2011) Scope to improve phosphorus (P) management and balance efficiency of crop and pasture soils with contrasting P status and buffering indices. Plant and Soil 349, 37–54.
| Scope to improve phosphorus (P) management and balance efficiency of crop and pasture soils with contrasting P status and buffering indices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weaver D, Ritchie G, Anderson G, Deeley D (1988) Phosphorus leaching in sandy soils. I. Short-term effects of fertilizer applications and environmental conditions. Australian Journal of Soil Research 26, 177–190.
| Phosphorus leaching in sandy soils. I. Short-term effects of fertilizer applications and environmental conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weaver D, Summers R, Rogers D, Richards P (2020) The effect of soil pH on phosphorus content of clover pasture. In ‘Resource management technical report 417.’ (Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development: Perth, Western Australia). Available at https://researchlibrary.agric.wa.gov.au/rmtr/402/
Withers PJ, Hodgkinson RA, Rollett A, Dyer C, Dils R, Collins AL, Bilsborrow PE, Bailey G, Sylvester-Bradley R (2017) Reducing soil phosphorus fertility brings potential long-term environmental gains: a UK analysis. Environmental Research Letters 12, 063001
| Reducing soil phosphorus fertility brings potential long-term environmental gains: a UK analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Withers P, Vadas P, Uusitalo R, et al (2019) A Global Perspective on Integrated Strategies to Manage Soil Phosphorus Status for Eutrophication Control without Limiting Land Productivity. Journal of Environmental Quality 48, 1234–1246.
| A Global Perspective on Integrated Strategies to Manage Soil Phosphorus Status for Eutrophication Control without Limiting Land Productivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 31589721PubMed |
Yeates J (1993) Soils and fertilizer use in southwestern Australia. Fertilizer Research 36, 123–125.
| Soils and fertilizer use in southwestern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
