High soil sodicity and alkalinity cause transient salinity in south-western Australia
Edward G. Barrett-Lennard A B C F , Geoffrey C. Anderson D , Karen W. Holmes A and Aidan Sinnott EA Department of Agriculture and Food of Western Australia, 3 Baron-Hay Court, South Perth, WA 6151, Australia.
B School of Plant Biology, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
C Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
D Department of Agriculture and Food of Western Australia, 75 York Road, Northam, WA 6401, Australia.
E Precision Agronomics Australia, 9 Currong Street, Esperance, WA 6450, Australia.
F Corresponding author. Email: ed.barrett-lennard@agric.wa.gov.au
Soil Research 54(4) 407-417 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR15052
Submitted: 18 February 2015 Accepted: 26 August 2015 Published: 6 June 2016
Abstract
Transient salinity associated with increased dispersion of clays is arguably one of the most economically important soil constraints in Australia because it occurs on land that is regularly cropped. However, this issue is rarely studied. This paper examines the occurrence of transient salinity on agricultural land in the south-west of Western Australia and the factors causing it. We analysed four soil datasets from the region, collected at scales varying from the entire south-west to a single paddock. A variety of soil parameters were correlated with increased electrical conductivity (EC1:5). The most significant relationships were invariably with measures of exchangeable sodium (Na+; 53–85% of variance accounted for), and this factor appears to be most responsible for transient salinity. Another parameter correlated with increased EC1:5 was alkalinity. This has been associated with the increased dispersion of kaolinite and consequent decreases in soil hydraulic conductivity; kaolinite is the most common clay mineral in the south-west of Western Australia. Other factors correlated with increased EC1:5 were increasing clay, increasing depth in the soil profile and decreasing rainfall. These factors are environmental indicators of transient salinity. Affected soils might be ameliorated by application of agents to increase soil hydraulic conductivity, such as gypsum and/or elemental sulfur.
Additional keywords: alkaline soils, clay mineralogy, dispersion, sodic soils.
References
Ahmed S, Swindale LS, El-Swaify SA (1969) Effects of adsorbed cations on physical properties of tropical red earths and tropical black earths. I. Plastic limit, percent stable aggregates and hydraulic conductivity. Journal of Soil Science 20, 255–268.| Effects of adsorbed cations on physical properties of tropical red earths and tropical black earths. I. Plastic limit, percent stable aggregates and hydraulic conductivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaE3cXhtFSgsrk%3D&md5=b285760a44f28e5bbe5c04fc087f8977CAS |
Bakker AC, Emerson WW, Oades JM (1973) The comparative effects of exchangeable calcium, magnesium and sodium on some physical properties of red-brown earth subsoils I. Exchange reactions and water contents for dispersion of Shepparton soil. Australian Journal of Soil Research 11, 143–150.
| The comparative effects of exchangeable calcium, magnesium and sodium on some physical properties of red-brown earth subsoils I. Exchange reactions and water contents for dispersion of Shepparton soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaE2cXisFCn&md5=a8cd6db16a62d19c081e1989026b07fcCAS |
Barrett-Lennard EG, George RJ, Hamilton G, Norman H, Masters D (2005) Multi-disciplinary approaches suggest profitable and sustainable farming systems for valley floors at risk of salinity. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 45, 1415–1424.
| Multi-disciplinary approaches suggest profitable and sustainable farming systems for valley floors at risk of salinity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bureau of Meteorology (2015) Climate data on-line. Bureau of Meteorology. Available at: www.bom.gov.au/climate/data
Burvill GH (1988) The soils of the Salmon Gums district—Western Australia. Technical Bulletin 77, Department of Agriculture of Western Australia, South Perth, W. Aust.
Churchman GJ, Skjemstad JO, Oades JM (1993) Influence of clay minerals and organic matter on effects of sodicity on soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 31, 779–800.
| Influence of clay minerals and organic matter on effects of sodicity on soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXktlCjtrc%3D&md5=0a7387e3f26accda4bed8f714ddea3caCAS |
Department of Agriculture and Food (2013) Report card on sustainable natural resource use in agriculture. Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia, South Perth, W. Aust.
Frenkel H, Goertzen JO, Rhoades JD (1978) Effects of clay type and content, exchangeable sodium percentage, and electrolyte concentration on clay dispersion and soil hydraulic conductivity. Soil Science Society of America Journal 42, 32–39.
| Effects of clay type and content, exchangeable sodium percentage, and electrolyte concentration on clay dispersion and soil hydraulic conductivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaE1cXhvVyqsLw%3D&md5=4652e46efa4aa727496fb5918ade2c5eCAS |
George RJ, McFarlane DJ, Nulsen RA (1997) Salinity threatens the viability of agriculture and ecosystems in Western Australia. Hydrogeology 5, 6–21.
| Salinity threatens the viability of agriculture and ecosystems in Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harries M, Anderson GC, Hüberli D (2015) Crop sequences in Western Australia: What are they and are they sustainable. Crop & Pasture Science 66, 634–647.
| Crop sequences in Western Australia: What are they and are they sustainable.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXpt1Kksr4%3D&md5=dc7524430db7bbf0d5e89dc12856d834CAS |
Hingston FJ, Bettenay E (1960) A laboratory examination of the soils of the Merredin area, Western Australia. Divisional Report 7/60, Division of Soils, Commonwealth Scientific Industrial and Research Organisation, Australia.
Hingston FJ, Gailitis V (1976) The geographic variation of salt precipitated over Western Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 14, 319–335.
| The geographic variation of salt precipitated over Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaE2sXns1ehsA%3D%3D&md5=ba5246c486f1b3490ac7207234e8497eCAS |
Land Monitor (2008) Land Monitor Information. Western Australian Land Information Authority. Available at: www.landmonitor.wa.gov.au/default.aspx?id=3
Masters DG, Norman HC, Barrett-Lennard EG (2005) Agricultural systems for saline soil: the potential role of livestock. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 18, 296–300.
| Agricultural systems for saline soil: the potential role of livestock.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McArthur WM (2004) ‘Reference soils of south-western Australia.’ (Department of Agriculture, Western Australia: South Perth, W. Aust.)
McDonald GK, Taylor JD, Verbyla A, Kuchel H (2012) Assessing the importance of subsoil constraints to yield of wheat and its implications for yield improvement. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 1043–1065.
| Assessing the importance of subsoil constraints to yield of wheat and its implications for yield improvement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moore G (2001) Soilguide: a handbook for understanding and managing agricultural soils. Bulletin No. 4343, Agriculture Western Australia, South Perth, W. Aust.
Norman HC, Masters DG, Barrett-Lennard EG (2013) Halophytes as forages in saline landscapes: interactions between plant genotype and environment change their feeding value to ruminants. Environmental and Experimental Botany 92, 96–109.
| Halophytes as forages in saline landscapes: interactions between plant genotype and environment change their feeding value to ruminants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Northcote KH (1979) ‘A factual key for the recognition of Australian soils.’ (Rellim Technical Publications: Glenside, S. Aust.)
Northcote KH, Skene JKM (1972) Australian soils with saline and sodic properties. Soil Publication No. 27, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia.
Pannell DJ, Ewing MA (2006) Managing secondary dryland salinity: options and challenges. Agricultural Water Management 80, 41–56.
| Managing secondary dryland salinity: options and challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Quirk JP, Murray RS (1991) Towards a model for soil structural behaviour. Australian Journal of Soil Research 29, 829–867.
| Towards a model for soil structural behaviour.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rengasamy P (2002) Transient salinity and subsoil constraints to dryland farming in Australian sodic soils: an overview. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 42, 351–361.
| Transient salinity and subsoil constraints to dryland farming in Australian sodic soils: an overview.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Richards LA (1954) ‘Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils.’ Handbook No. 60. (United States Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC)
Samuel LK, Teakle LJH (1931) Procedure for the rapid estimation of soil alkali and salt under field conditions. Journal of Agriculture of Western Australia 8, 219–227.
Slavich PG, Petterson GH (1993) Estimating the electrical conductivity of saturated paste extracts from 1:5 soil:water suspensions and texture. Australian Journal of Soil Research 31, 73–81.
| Estimating the electrical conductivity of saturated paste extracts from 1:5 soil:water suspensions and texture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Suarez DL, Rhoades JD, Lavado R, Grieve CM (1984) Effect of pH on saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil dispersion. Soil Science Society of America Journal 48, 50–55.
| Effect of pH on saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil dispersion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2cXhtF2rurc%3D&md5=f2f25d5608b7d7bfa672be329827fb1fCAS |
Teakle LJH, Southern BL, Stokes SJ (1940) A soil survey of the Lakes District, Western Australia. Journal of Agriculture of Western Australia 17, 251–294.
Wood WE (1924) Increase of salt in soil and streams following the destruction of the native vegetation. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 10, 35–47.
