A review of nitrogen losses due to leaching and surface runoff under intensive pasture management in Australia
Lucy L. Burkitt
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
Fertilizer and Lime Research Centre, Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; Formerly: Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, PO Box 3523, Burnie, Tas. 7320, Australia. Email: L.Burkitt@massey.ac.nz
Soil Research 52(7) 621-636 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR13351
Submitted: 1 December 2013 Accepted: 26 May 2014 Published: 10 October 2014
Abstract
This paper reviews the literature on nitrate leaching and nitrogen (N) runoff under intensive dairy pasture systems in Australia and draws comparisons with research undertaken under similar climates and farming systems internationally, with the aim to inform future research in this area. An Australian nitrate-leaching study suggests that annual nitrate-leaching loads are lower (3.7–14.5 kg N ha–1 year–1 for nil N and 6–22 kg N ha–1 year–1 for 200 kg N ha–1 applied) than the range previously measured and modelled on New Zealand dairy farms (~18–110 kg N ha–1 year–1). It is likely that nitrate-leaching rates are higher in New Zealand because of the prevalence of free-draining soils and higher average stocking rates. However, this review highlights that there are insufficient Australian nitrate-leaching data, particularly following urine application, to undertake a rigorous comparison. Median N surpluses on Australian dairy farms are higher (198 kg N ha–1) than values for an average New Zealand farm (135 kg N ha–1). Given the facts that many soils used for intensive pasture production in Australia are lightly textured or free-draining clay loams receiving average rainfall of >800 mm year–1, that herd sizes have risen in the last 10 years and that water quality is a concern in some dairy catchments, nitrate leaching could be an issue for the Australian dairy industry. Australian data on surface runoff of N are more available, despite its overall contribution to N losses being low (generally <5 kg N ha–1 year–1), except under border-check flood irrigation or hump-and-hollow surface drainage (3–23 kg N ha–1 year–1). More research is needed to quantify surface N runoff and leaching following effluent application and to examine dissolved organic forms of N loss, particularly in view of the continued intensification of the Australian dairy industry.
Additional keywords: dairy, nitrate leaching, water quality.
References
Abdou HM, Flury M (2004) Simulation of water flow and solute transport in free-drainage lysimeters and field soils with heterogeneous structures. European Journal of Soil Science 55, 229–241.| Simulation of water flow and solute transport in free-drainage lysimeters and field soils with heterogeneous structures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Addiscott TM (2005) ‘Nitrate, agriculture and the environment.’ (CABI Publishing: Wallingford, UK)
Bell SG, Codd GA (1996) Detection, analysis and risk assessment of cyanobacterial toxins. In ‘Agricultural chemicals and the environment’. (Eds RE Hester, RM Harrison) pp. 109–122. (The Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, UK)
Bennett D, Russell B (2008) Greener Pastures—a fresh look at nutrient losses from grazed pastures. Department of Agriculture and Food, South Perth, W. Aust. Available at: www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/aap/dc/nutrientlosses2008.pdf (accessed 30 November 2013).
Blackwell MSA, Hogan DV, Maltby E (2002) Wetlands as regulators of pollutant transport. In ‘Agriculture, hydrology and water quality’. (Eds PM Haygarth, SC Jarvis) pp. 321–336. (CABI Publishing: Wallingford, UK)
Broad ST, Corkrey R (2011) Estimating annual generation rates of total P and total N for different land uses in Tasmania, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management 92, 1609–1617.
| Estimating annual generation rates of total P and total N for different land uses in Tasmania, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21354692PubMed |
Brookes IM, Horne DJ (2005) Modelling urine nitrogen production and leaching losses for pasture-based dairying systems. In ‘20th International Grassland Congress’. Dublin, 2005. (Eds FP O’Mara, RJ Wilkins, L ’t Mannetje, DK Lovett, PAM Rogers, TM Boland) p. 748. (International Grassland Congress)
Cameron KC, Di HJ, Condron LM (2002) Nutrient and pesticide transfer from agricultural soils to water in New Zealand. In ‘Agriculture, hydrology and water quality’. (Eds PM Haygarth, SC Jarvis) pp. 373–393. (CABI Publishing: Wallingford, UK)
Christensen CL (2013) Duration-controlled grazing of dairy cows: impacts on pasture production and losses of nutrients and faecal microbes to water. PhD Thesis, Soil Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Available at: http://mro.massey.ac.nz/handle/10179/5142
Cotching WE (2009) ‘Soil health for farming in Tasmania.’ (Richmond Concepts and Print: Devonport, Tas.)
Cuttle SP, Hallard M, Daniel G, Scurlock RV (1992) Nitrate leaching from sheep-grazed grass/clover and fertilized grass pastures. Journal of Agricultural Science 119, 335–343.
| Nitrate leaching from sheep-grazed grass/clover and fertilized grass pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dairy Australia Ltd (2013a) Dairy 2013. Situation and outlook. Dairy Australia Ltd, Melbourne. Available at: www.dairyaustralia.com.au/~/media/Documents/Stats%20and%20markets/S%20and%20O/May%202013/Dairy%20Situation%20and%20Outlook%20May%202013%20-%20Full%20Report.pdf (accessed 25 November 2013).
Dairy Australia Ltd (2013b) Australian dairy industry in focus 2013. Dairy Australia Ltd, Melbourne. Available at: www.dairyaustralia.com.au/Industry-overview /About-Dairy-Australia/~/media/ Documents/Stats%20and%20markets/In%20Focus/Australian%20Dairy%20Industry%20In%20Focus%202013.pdf (accessed 25 November 2013).
Dairy NZ (2012) New Zealand dairy statistics 2011–2012. DairyNZ, Hamilton, New Zealand. Available at: www.dairynz.co.nz/file/fileid/45159 (accessed 25 November 2013).
de Klein CAM (2001) An analysis of environmental and economic implications of nil- and restricted grazing systems designed to reduce nitrate leaching from New Zealand dairy farms. II. Pasture production and cost/benefit analysis. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 44, 217–235.
| An analysis of environmental and economic implications of nil- and restricted grazing systems designed to reduce nitrate leaching from New Zealand dairy farms. II. Pasture production and cost/benefit analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
de Klein CAM, Ledgard SF (2001) An analysis of environmentall and economic implications of nil and restricted grazing systems designed to reduce nitrate leaching from New Zealand dairy farms. I. Nitrogen losses. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 44, 201–215.
| An analysis of environmentall and economic implications of nil and restricted grazing systems designed to reduce nitrate leaching from New Zealand dairy farms. I. Nitrogen losses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Di HJ, Cameron KC (2000) Calculating nitrogen leaching losses and critical nitrogen application rates in dairy pasture systems using a semi-emperical model. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 43, 139–147.
| Calculating nitrogen leaching losses and critical nitrogen application rates in dairy pasture systems using a semi-emperical model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Di HJ, Cameron KC (2002) Nitrate leaching from temperate agroecosystems: sources, factors and mitigating strategies. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 64, 237–256.
| Nitrate leaching from temperate agroecosystems: sources, factors and mitigating strategies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Di HJ, Cameron KC (2004) Effects of temperature and application rate of nitrification inhibitor, dicyandiamide (DCD), on nitrification rate and microbial biomass in a grazed pasture. Australian Journal of Soil Research 42, 927–932.
| Effects of temperature and application rate of nitrification inhibitor, dicyandiamide (DCD), on nitrification rate and microbial biomass in a grazed pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Di HJ, Cameron KC, Moore S, Smith NP (1998) Nitrate leaching from dairy shed effluent and ammonium fertilizer applied to a free-draining soil under spray or flood irrigation. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 41, 263–270.
| Nitrate leaching from dairy shed effluent and ammonium fertilizer applied to a free-draining soil under spray or flood irrigation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dougherty WJ, Fleming NK, Cox JW, Chittleborough DJ (2004) Phosphorus transfer in surface runoff from intensive pasture systems at various scales: a review. Journal of Environmental Quality 33, 1973–1988.
| Phosphorus transfer in surface runoff from intensive pasture systems at various scales: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15537919PubMed |
DPIWE (2003) State of the rivers report for the Montagu River catchment. Water Assessment and Planning Branch, Department of Primary Industries Water and Environment, Hobart, Tas.
Drewry JJ, Newham LTH, Greene RSB, Jakeman AJ, Croke BFW (2006) A review of nitrogen and phosphorus export to waterways: context for catchment modelling. Marine and Freshwater Research 57, 757–774.
| A review of nitrogen and phosphorus export to waterways: context for catchment modelling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dunbabin V, Diggle A, Rengel Z (2003) Is there an optimal root architecture for nitrate capture in leaching environments? Plant, Cell & Environment 26, 835–844.
| Is there an optimal root architecture for nitrate capture in leaching environments?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eckard RJ, Franks DR (1998) Strategic nitrogen fertiliser use on perennial ryegrass and white clover pasture in north-western Tasmania. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38, 155–160.
| Strategic nitrogen fertiliser use on perennial ryegrass and white clover pasture in north-western Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eckard RJ, White RE, Edis R, Smith A, Chapman DF (2004) Nitrate leaching from temperate perennial pastures grazed by dairy cows in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 55, 911–920.
| Nitrate leaching from temperate perennial pastures grazed by dairy cows in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Edwards DR, Daniel TC (1993) Waste management—effects of poultry litter application rate and rainfall intensity on quality of runoff from fescuegrass plots. Journal of Environmental Quality 22, 361–365.
| Waste management—effects of poultry litter application rate and rainfall intensity on quality of runoff from fescuegrass plots.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fahrner S (2002) Groundwater nitrate removal using a bioremediation trench. BEng (Hons) Thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. Aust.
Fillery IRP (2001) The fate of biologically fixed nitrogen in legume-based dryland farming systems: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41, 361–381.
| The fate of biologically fixed nitrogen in legume-based dryland farming systems: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fillery IRP (2011) Observations on key nitrogen transformations that affect N use efficiency in Western Australia dairy pastures. CSIRO Perth, W. Aust.
Fillery IRP, Bolland MDA (Eds) (2007) Reducing nitrogen losses from urine patches using DCD. Greener Pastures Factsheet. Department of Agriculture and Food, South Perth, W. Aust.
Fleming NK, Cox JW, Chittleborough DJ, Dyson CB (2001) An analysis of chemical loads and forms in overland flow from dairy pasture in South Australia. Hydrological Processes 15, 393–405.
| An analysis of chemical loads and forms in overland flow from dairy pasture in South Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ford PW, Bormans M (2000) Nitrogen transformations in freshwater sediments. In ‘Nitrogen Workshop 2000: Sources, Transformations, Effects and Management on Nitrogen in Freshwater Ecosystems’. Melbourne. (Eds BT Hart, MR Grace) pp. 91–95. (Land & Water Australia: Canberra, ACT)
Gburek WJ, Sharpley AN (1998) Hydrologic controls on phosphorus loss from upland agricultural watersheds. Journal of Environmental Quality 27, 267–277.
| Hydrologic controls on phosphorus loss from upland agricultural watersheds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gee GW, Zhang ZF, Ward AL (2003) A modified vadose zone fluxmeter with solution collection capability. Vadose Zone Journal 2, 627–632.
| A modified vadose zone fluxmeter with solution collection capability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ghani A, Dexter M, Carran RA, Theobald PW (2007) Dissolved organic nitrogen and carbon in pastoral soils: the New Zealand experience. European Journal of Soil Science 58, 832–843.
| Dissolved organic nitrogen and carbon in pastoral soils: the New Zealand experience.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Golden M, Leifert C (1999) Potential risks and benefits of dietary nitrate. In ‘Managing risks of nitrates to humans and the environment’. (Eds WS Wilson, AS Ball, RH Hinton) pp. 269–280. (Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, UK)
Gourley CJP, Weaver DM (2012) Nutrient surpluses in Australian grazing systems: management practices, policy approaches, and difficult choices to improve water quality. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 805–818.
| Nutrient surpluses in Australian grazing systems: management practices, policy approaches, and difficult choices to improve water quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gourley CJP, Dougherty WJ, Aarons SR, Hannah M (2010) Accounting for nutrients on Australian dairy farms. Technical Note. Department of Primary Industries, Ellinbank, Vic.
Greenhill NB, Peverill KI, Douglas LA (1983) Nutrient concentrations in runoff from pasture in Westernport, Victoria. Australian Journal of Soil Research 21, 139–145.
| Nutrient concentrations in runoff from pasture in Westernport, Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hall R (2008) Nitrogen in soil. In ‘Soil essentials’. pp. 25–27. (Landlinks Press, CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Hatch D, Goulding K, Murphy D (2002) Nitrogen. In ‘Agriculture, hydrology and water quality’. (Eds PM Haygarth, SC Jarvis) (CABI Publishing: Wallingford, UK)
Haynes RJ, Williams PH (1993) Nutrient cycling and soil fertility in the grazed pasture ecosystem. Advances in Agronomy 49, 119–199.
| Nutrient cycling and soil fertility in the grazed pasture ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hazelton P, Murphy B (2007) ‘Interpreting soil tests, what do all the numbers mean?’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Heathwaite AL, Burt TP, Trudgill ST (1993) Overview-the nitrate issue. In ‘Nitrate: processes, patterns and management’. (Eds TP Burt, AL Heathwaite, ST Trudgill) pp. 3–21. (John Wiley and Sons: Chichester, UK)
Hill AR (1996) Nitrate removal in stream riparian zones. Journal of Environmental Quality 25, 743–755.
| Nitrate removal in stream riparian zones.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holz GK (2009) Seasonal variation in groundwater levels and quality under intensively drained and grazed pastures in the Montagu catchment, NW Tasmania. Agricultural Water Management 96, 255–266.
| Seasonal variation in groundwater levels and quality under intensively drained and grazed pastures in the Montagu catchment, NW Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holz GK (2010) Sources and processes of contaminant loss from an intensively grazed catchment inferred from patterns in discharge and concentration of thirteen analytes using high intensity sampling. Journal of Hydrology 383, 194–208.
| Sources and processes of contaminant loss from an intensively grazed catchment inferred from patterns in discharge and concentration of thirteen analytes using high intensity sampling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hooda PS, Moynagh M, Svoboda IF, Anderson HA (1998) A comparative study of nitrate leaching from intensively managed monoculture grass and grass-clover pastures. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 131,
| A comparative study of nitrate leaching from intensively managed monoculture grass and grass-clover pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Houlbrooke DJ, Horne DJ, Hedley MJ, Hanly JA (2004) A review of literature on the land treatment of farm-dairy effluent in New Zealand and its impact on water quality. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 47, 499–511.
| A review of literature on the land treatment of farm-dairy effluent in New Zealand and its impact on water quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Isbell RF (2002) ‘The Australian Soil Classification.’ Revised edn (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Jarvis SC, Schofield D, Pain B (1995) Nitrogen cycling in grazing systems. In ‘Nitrogen fertilization in the environment’. (Ed. PE Bacon) pp. 381–419. (Marcel Dekker: New York)
Kelly KB, Phillips FA, Baigent R (2008) Impact of dicyandiamide application on nitrous oxide emissions from urine patches in northern Victoria, Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 156–159.
| Impact of dicyandiamide application on nitrous oxide emissions from urine patches in northern Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kleinman PJA, Srinivasan MS, Dell CJ, Schmidt JP, Sharpley AN, Bryant RB (2006) Role of rainfall intensity and hydrology in nutrient transport via surface runoff. Journal of Environmental Quality 35, 1248–1259.
Ledgard SF (2001) Nitrogen cycling in low input legume-based agriculture, with emphasis on legume/grass pastures. Plant and Soil 228, 43–59.
| Nitrogen cycling in low input legume-based agriculture, with emphasis on legume/grass pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ledgard SF, Steele KW (1992) Biological nitrogen fixation in mixed legume/grass pastures. Plant and Soil 141, 137–153.
| Biological nitrogen fixation in mixed legume/grass pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ledgard SF, Crush JR, Penno JW (1998) Environmental impacts of different nitrogen inputs on dairy farms and implications for the Resource Management Act of New Zealand. Environmental Pollution 102, 515–519.
| Environmental impacts of different nitrogen inputs on dairy farms and implications for the Resource Management Act of New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ledgard SF, Penno JW, Sprosen MS (1999) Nitrogen inputs and losses from clover/grass pastures grazed by dairy cows, as affected by nitrogen fertilizer application. The Journal of Agricultural Science 132, 215–225.
| Nitrogen inputs and losses from clover/grass pastures grazed by dairy cows, as affected by nitrogen fertilizer application.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ledgard SF, de Klein CAM, Crush JR, Thorrold BS (2000) Dairy farming, nitrogen losses and nitrate-sensitive areas. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 60, 256–260.
Ledgard SF, Journeaux PR, Furness H, Petch RA, Wheeler DM (2004) Use of nutrient budgeting and management options for increasing nutrient use efficiency and reducing environmental emissions from New Zealand farms. OECD Expert Meeting on Farm Management Indicators and the Environment, Session 5, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
McArthur K, Clark M (2007) Nitrogen and phosphorus loads to rivers in the Manawatu–Wanganui region: an analysis of low flow state. Horizons Regional Council, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
McCaskill M, Lamb J (2001) Nitrate Leaching in Western Victoria Nitrogen fertilisers on dairy pastures Terang leaching study. In ‘Best management practices for nitrogen in intensive pasture production systems’. (Ed. RJ Eckard) pp. 126–131. (Natural Resources and Environment: Ellinbank, Vic.)
McDowell RW, Nash DM, Robertson F (2007) Sources of phosphorus lost from a grazed pasture receiving simulated rainfall. Journal of Environmental Quality 36, 1281–1288.
| Sources of phosphorus lost from a grazed pasture receiving simulated rainfall.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17636289PubMed |
McKenzie FR, Jacobs JL, Ryan M, Kearney G (1999) Effect of rate and time of nitrogen application from autumn to mid-winter on perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in western Victoria. 1. Growth and composition. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50, 1059–1065.
| Effect of rate and time of nitrogen application from autumn to mid-winter on perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in western Victoria. 1. Growth and composition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKenzie FR, Jacobs JL, Kearney G (2003a) Long-term effects of multiple applications of nitrogen fertiliser on grazed grassland perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in south-west Victoria. 2. Growth rates, dry matter consumed, and nitrogen response efficiencies. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 471–476.
| Long-term effects of multiple applications of nitrogen fertiliser on grazed grassland perennial ryegrass/white clover dairy pastures in south-west Victoria. 2. Growth rates, dry matter consumed, and nitrogen response efficiencies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKenzie FR, Jacobs JL, Rifkin PA, Kearney G, McCaskill M (2003b) Long-term effects of multiple applications of nitrogen fertiliser on grazed dryland perennial ryegrass/white clover pastures in south-west Victoria. 1. Nitrogen fixation by white clover. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 461–469.
McKergow LA, Weaver DM, Prosser IP, Grayson RB, Reed AEG (2003) Before and after riparian management: sediment and nutrient exports from a small agricultural catchment, Western Australia. Journal of Hydrology 270, 253–272.
| Before and after riparian management: sediment and nutrient exports from a small agricultural catchment, Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Melland AR, Mc Caskill MR, White RE, Chapman DF (2008) Loss of phosphorus and nitrogen in runoff and subsurface drainage from high and low input pastures grazed by sheep in southern Australia. Soil Research 46, 161–172.
| Loss of phosphorus and nitrogen in runoff and subsurface drainage from high and low input pastures grazed by sheep in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miller LA, Moorby JM, Davies DR, Humphreys MO, Scollan ND, Macrea JC, Theodorou KM (2001) Increased concentration of water-soluble carbohydrate in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.): milk production from late-lactation dairy cows. Grass and Forage Science 56, 383–394.
| Increased concentration of water-soluble carbohydrate in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.): milk production from late-lactation dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Misselbrook TH, Powell JM, Broderick GA, Grabber JH (2005) Dietary manipulation in dairy cattle: laboratory experiments to assess the influence on ammonia emissions. Journal of Dairy Science 88, 1765–1777.
| Dietary manipulation in dairy cattle: laboratory experiments to assess the influence on ammonia emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15829670PubMed |
Monaghan RM, Houlbrooke DJ, Smith LC (2010) The use of low-rate sprinkler application systems for applying farm dairy effluent to land to reduce contaminant transfers. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 53, 389–402.
| The use of low-rate sprinkler application systems for applying farm dairy effluent to land to reduce contaminant transfers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mundy GN (1993) Guidelines for the economic use of nitrogen fertiliser on irrigated dairy farms. Victorian Department of Agriculture, Kyabram, Vic.
Mundy GN, Bethune M (2001) Lysimeter study. Movement of surface applied nitrogen and phosphorus down red-brown soil cores—a preliminary evaluation. University of Melbourne and Natural Resources and Environment, Ellinbank, Vic.
Mundy GN, Nexhip KJ, Austin NR, Collins MD (2003) The influence of cutting and grazing on phosphorus and nitrogen in irrigation runoff from perennial pasture. Australian Journal of Soil Research 41, 675–685.
| The influence of cutting and grazing on phosphorus and nitrogen in irrigation runoff from perennial pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murray P, Philcox MB (1995) An assessment of irrigation runoff from flood irrigated dairy pastures of the Lower Murray. Primary Industries and Resources South Australia, Adelaide, S. Aust.
Nash D, Webb B, Hannah M, Adeloju S, Toifl M, Barlow K, Robertson F, Roddick F, Porter N (2007) Changes in nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in soil, soil water and surface run-off following grading of irrigation bays used for intensive grazing. Soil Use and Management 23, 374–383.
| Changes in nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in soil, soil water and surface run-off following grading of irrigation bays used for intensive grazing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nelson PN, Cotsaris E, Oades JM (1996) Nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic carbon in streams draining two grazed catchments. Journal of Environmental Quality 25, 1221–1229.
| Nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic carbon in streams draining two grazed catchments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries (2013) DCD suspension supported. New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries, Wellington, New Zealand. Available at: www.mpi.govt.nz/news-resources/news/dcd-suspension-supported (accessed 27 November 2013).
Nexhip KJ, Mundy GN, Collins MD, Austin NR (1998) Development of nutrient water quality targets for irrigated pasture sub-catchments. Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture, Tatura, Vic.
Pakrou N, Dillon P (2000) Key processes of the nitrogen cycle in an irrigated and non-irrigated grazed pasture. Plant and Soil 224, 231–250.
| Key processes of the nitrogen cycle in an irrigated and non-irrigated grazed pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pakrou N, Dillon PJ (2004) Leaching losses of N under grazed irrigated and non-irrigated pastures. The Journal of Agricultural Science 142, 503–516.
| Leaching losses of N under grazed irrigated and non-irrigated pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pärn J, Pinay G, Mander Ü (2012) Indicators of nutrients transport from agricultural catchments under temperate climate: A review. Ecological Indicators 22, 4–15.
| Indicators of nutrients transport from agricultural catchments under temperate climate: A review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pembleton KG, Rawnsley RR, Burkitt LL (2013) Environmental influences on optimum nitrogen fertiliser rates for temperate dairy pastures. European Journal of Agronomy 45, 132–141.
| Environmental influences on optimum nitrogen fertiliser rates for temperate dairy pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peoples MB, Baldock JA (2001) Nitrogen dynamics of pastures: nitrogen fixation inputs, the impact of legumes on soil nitrogen fertility, and the contributions of fixed nitrogen to Australian farming systems. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41, 327–346.
| Nitrogen dynamics of pastures: nitrogen fixation inputs, the impact of legumes on soil nitrogen fertility, and the contributions of fixed nitrogen to Australian farming systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pidwirny M (2006) The nitrogen cycle. Fundamentals eBook. Ch. 9. PhysicalGeography.net. Available at: www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9s.html (accessed 25 November 2013).
Polyakov V, Fares A, Ryder MH (2005) Precision riparian buffers for the control of nonpoint source pollutant loading into surface water: a review. Environmental Reviews 13, 129–144.
| Precision riparian buffers for the control of nonpoint source pollutant loading into surface water: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Prove B, Moody PW, Reghenzani J (1997) Nutrient balances and transport from agricultural and rainforest lands: a case study in the Johnstone River Catchment. Queensland Department of Natural Resources, South Johnstone, Qld.
Pullanagari RR, Yule IJ, Tuohy MP, Hedley MJ, Dynes RA, King WM (2012) In-field hyperspectral proximal sensing for estimating quality parameters of mixed pasture. Precision Agriculture 13, 351–369.
| In-field hyperspectral proximal sensing for estimating quality parameters of mixed pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rawnsley RP, Chapman DF, Jacobs JL, Garcia SC, Callow MN, Edwards GR, Pembleton KP (2012) Complementary Forages - integration at a whole farm level. In ‘Proceedings of the 5th Australasian Dairy Science Symposium’. Melbourne, Australia. (Ed. JL Jacobs) pp. 314–329.
Schoen R, Gaudet JP, Bariac T (1999) Preferential flow and solute transport in a large lysimeter, under controlled boundary conditions. Journal of Hydrology 215, 70–81.
| Preferential flow and solute transport in a large lysimeter, under controlled boundary conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Scholefield D, Lockyer DR, Garwood EA, Armstrong RD, Hawkins J, Stone AC (1993) Nitrate leaching from grazed grassland lysimeters: effects of fertilizer input, field drainage, age of sward, and patterns of weather. Journal of Soil Science 44, 601–613.
| Nitrate leaching from grazed grassland lysimeters: effects of fertilizer input, field drainage, age of sward, and patterns of weather.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
SERA-17 (2004) National Research Project for Simulated Rainfall—Surface runoff studies. Southern Extension and Research Activity. Available at: www.sera17.ext.vt.edu/Documents/National_P_protocol.pdf (accessed 18 May 2014).
Silva RG, Cameron KC, Di HJ, Hendry T (1999) A lysimeter study of the impact of cow urine, dairy shed effluent and nitrogen fertilizer on drainage water quality. Australian Journal of Soil Research 37, 357–369.
| A lysimeter study of the impact of cow urine, dairy shed effluent and nitrogen fertilizer on drainage water quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sims JT, Coale FJ (2002) Solutions to nutrient management problems in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, USA. In ‘Agriculture, hydrology and water quality’. (Eds PM Haygarth, SC Jarvis) pp. 345-371. (CABI: Wallingford, UK)
Thomas SM, Ledgard SF, Francis GS (2005) Improving estimates of nitrate leaching for quantifying New Zealand’s indirect nitrous oxide emissions. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 73, 213–226.
| Improving estimates of nitrate leaching for quantifying New Zealand’s indirect nitrous oxide emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thorrold B, Doyle P (2007) Nature or nurture – forces shaping the current and future state of dairy farming in New Zealand and Australia. In ‘Meeting the challenges for pasture-based dairying’. 2007, Melbourne. (Eds DF Chapman, DA Clark, KL Macmillan, DP Nation) pp. 450–460.
Unkovich M (2012) Nitrogen fixation in Australian dairy systems: review and prospect. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 787–804.
| Nitrogen fixation in Australian dairy systems: review and prospect.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van der Velde M, Green SR, Gee GW, Vanclooster M, Clothier BE (2005) Evaluation of drainage from passive suction and nonsuction flux meters in a volcanic clay soil under tropical conditions. Vadose Zone Journal 4, 1201–1209.
| Evaluation of drainage from passive suction and nonsuction flux meters in a volcanic clay soil under tropical conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Vuuren AM, Van der Koelen CJ, Valk H, De Visser H (1993) Effects of partial replacement of ryegrass by low protein feeds on rumen fermentation and nitrogen loss by dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 76, 2982–2993.
| Effects of partial replacement of ryegrass by low protein feeds on rumen fermentation and nitrogen loss by dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 8227624PubMed |
Waikato Regional Council (2012) Nitrogen losses from land. Environmental Information. Waikato Regional Council. Available at: www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/Environment/Environmental-information/Environmental-indicators/Freshwater/River-and-streams/riv7a-report/ (accessed 7 May 2012).
Weier KL (1994) Nitrogen use and losses in agriculture in subtropical Australia. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 39, 245–257.
Weihermüller L, Siemens J, Deurer M, Knoblauch S, Rupp H, Göttlein A, Pütz T (2007) In situ soil water extraction: a review. Journal of Environmental Quality 36, 1735–1748.
| In situ soil water extraction: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17965376PubMed |
Whitehead DC (1995) Consumption, digestion and excretion of nitrogen by ruminant livestock. In ‘Grassland nitrogen’. pp. 59–128. (CAB International: Wallingford, UK)
Wiesler F, Horst WJ (1993) Differences among maize cultivars in the utilization of soil nitrate and the related losses of nitrate through leaching. Plant and Soil 151, 193–203.
| Differences among maize cultivars in the utilization of soil nitrate and the related losses of nitrate through leaching.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilcock RJ, Nagels JW, Rodda HJE, O’Connor MB, Thorrold BS, Barnett JW (1999) Water quality of a lowland stream in a New Zealand dairy farming catchment. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 33, 683–696.
| Water quality of a lowland stream in a New Zealand dairy farming catchment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilcock RJ, Monaghan RM, Thorrold BS, Meredith AS, Betteridge K, Duncan MJ (2007) Land–water interactions in five contrasting dairy catchments: issues and solutions. Land Use and Water Resources Research 7, 2.1–2.10.
Zhu Y, Fox RH, Toth JD (2002) Leachate collection efficiency of zero-tension pan and passive capillary fiberglass wick lysimeters. Soil Science Society of America Journal 66, 37–43.
| Leachate collection efficiency of zero-tension pan and passive capillary fiberglass wick lysimeters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
