A new system for determining which plant species are indigenous in Australia
Anthony R. BeanQueensland Herbarium, Brisbane Botanic Gardens, Mt Coot-tha Road, Toowong 4066, Queensland, Australia. Email: tony.bean@epa.qld.gov.au
Australian Systematic Botany 20(1) 1-43 https://doi.org/10.1071/SB06030
Submitted: 11 September 2006 Accepted: 7 December 2006 Published: 26 February 2007
Abstract
An examination of Floras and related literature from various countries of the world has revealed a wide range of interpretations and concepts for indigenous plants. Nevertheless, an indigenous plant species has been universally defined as one that was not deliberately or accidentally introduced by man. An important recent addendum to the ‘indigenous’ definition is that it must disperse from an area where it is considered native. Particularly problematic are the so-called ‘pantropical’ or ‘cosmopolitan’ plants. These species are usually invasive and abundant, but most could not have crossed major barriers without the assistance of humans, and hence should be regarded as non-native species throughout much of their range. The accurate assessment of the alien or indigenous status of these and other taxa has been hampered by a lack of knowledge about their geographic origins and dispersal ability. Australian botanists have frequently adhered to a concept of indigenous plants being any that were thought to be present before European settlement in their region of interest – 1788 for the Sydney area, and as late as the 1850s for northern Australia. This definition is unrealistic and unworkable, especially when considering the ‘pantropical’ species. The transport of plants by maritime traders and explorers into the Indonesian and west Pacific areas has occurred for at least the past 3000 years. European colonisation in those areas from the 16th century accelerated plant introductions. Some of those plant species undoubtedly made their way to Australia before European settlement. This paper presents explicit definitions for indigenous (native) or alien (exotic, introduced, non-indigenous) plant species in Australia. A system of assessment using a combination of ecological, phytogeographical and historical criteria (the EPH system) allows the determination of ‘origin status’ for individual species. As a case study, data are presented for 40 plant species of disputed origin status. These species are assessed against the criteria, and a recommended origin status given for Australian occurrences.
Acknowledgements
I gratefully acknowledge the assistance and advice of my colleagues at the Queensland Herbarium during the compilation of this paper, particularly Rod Fensham, Don Butler, Paul Forster, Ailsa Holland, Les Pedley, George Batianoff, Gordon Guymer and Laurie Jessup. I am especially grateful to Bob Johnson; my talks with him about the weedy Ipomoeas were the catalyst for this paper. Thanks also go to taxonomists and ecologists from various parts of Australia who advised me on various species: Steve Csurhes, Robyn Barker, Ian Cowie, Barbara Waterhouse, Andrew Ford, John Hosking, Andrew Mitchell, Val Stajsic, Neville Walsh, Brendan Lepschi, and Alex Buchanan. Bruce Hansen (USF, Florida) advised me on Scoparia dulcis and Cardiospermum; Paul Herman (PRE, South Africa) informed me about the taxonomy and distribution of Cotula spp. I am grateful to Catherine Gallagher, Collections Manager, National Herbarium of Victoria, for providing details of thousands of specimens collected by pioneer botanists in Queensland. Sandra Bowdler (University of Western Australia) provided some useful archaeological references. Juliet Wege (Australian Botanical Liaison Officer, 2005–2006) has kindly provided label details of early Australian collections for many of the species considered in this paper, and images of some of them. Peter Bostock provided the base maps in digital form, and Will Smith (BRI) assisted in the production of the distribution and route maps. I gratefully acknowledge the use of distribution maps from the Australia’s Virtual Herbarium. Two anonymous referees made many helpful suggestions to improve the manuscript.
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1 Abbreviation for Common Era, a non-religious alternative to the use of AD.
2 Abbreviation for Before Common Era, a non-religious alternative to the use of BC.
3 This can be determined from herbarium specimen records. Expansion can be inferred from relatively recent collections made in areas visited previously by botanists whose credentials for collecting weeds are well documented. In the case of Queensland, these botanists are F. Mueller (Brisbane area), L. Leichhardt, J. Dallachy (Cardwell area), C.T. White, S.L. Everist, S.T. Blake and R.W. Johnson.
