Hydrology and runoff water quality from three improved pastures compared with virgin brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) woodland over 8 years in semiarid Australia
Amanda Elledge A * and Craig Thornton AA Department of Environment and Science, PO Box 413, Rockhampton, Qld 4700, Australia.
The Rangeland Journal 44(3) 177-192 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ22042
Submitted: 20 July 2022 Accepted: 18 November 2022 Published: 8 December 2022
© 2022 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Australian Rangeland Society. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
The Fitzroy Basin in central Queensland has the largest cattle herd of any natural resource management region in Australia, and legumes have been widely used to boost fertility of rundown soil and improve cattle liveweight gains. However, there is a paucity of information on the effect of leguminous pastures on hydrology and water quality. This study investigated runoff water quality over eight hydrological years from virgin brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) woodland and three improved pastures, namely, buffel grass (Pennisetum ciliare), butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea) and leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala). Runoff event mean concentrations and loads of total and dissolved nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon in addition to total suspended solids are reported. Brigalow woodland had the greatest loss of sediment and nitrogen attributed to the inherently fertile Vertosols (clay soil), but the low occurrence and amount of runoff meant that it had a low risk to water quality. Despite a similar number of runoff events from the improved pastures, leucaena pasture had less total runoff and a lower maximum peak runoff rate in addition to lower nitrogen and carbon in runoff. Total suspended solids and carbon in runoff were greater from grass pasture than from the leguminous pastures, whereas nitrogen and phosphorus were greatest from the butterfly pea pasture, especially in the first 2 years post-planting. Greater exports of phosphorus from the improved pastures were concerning, given the potential for downstream impacts.
Keywords: carbon, Clitoria ternatea, forest, Leucaena leucocephala, nitrogen, Pennisetum ciliare, phosphorus, sediment.
References
Ahern CR, Shields PG, Enderlin NG, Baker DE (1994) ‘The soil fertility of central and north-east Queensland grazing lands.’ (Department of Primary Industries: Qld, Australia)Allen, PM, Harmel, RD, Arnold, J, Plant, B, Yelderman, J, and King, K (2005). Field data and flow system response in clay (vertisol) shale terrain, north central Texas, USA. Hydrological Processes 19, 2719–2736.
| Field data and flow system response in clay (vertisol) shale terrain, north central Texas, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Armstrong, RD, Walsh, K, McCosker, KJ, Millar, GR, Probert, ME, and Johnson, S (1997). Improved nitrogen supply to cereals in central Queensland following short legume leys. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 37, 359–368.
| Improved nitrogen supply to cereals in central Queensland following short legume leys.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bartley, R, Speirs, WJ, Ellis, TW, and Waters, DK (2012). A review of sediment and nutrient concentration data from Australia for use in catchment water quality models. Marine Pollution Bulletin 65, 101–116.
| A review of sediment and nutrient concentration data from Australia for use in catchment water quality models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bol, R, Gruau, G, Mellander, P-E, Dupas, R, Bechmann, M, Skarbøvik, E, Bieroza, M, Djodjic, F, Glendell, M, Jordan, P, Van der Grift, B, Rode, M, Smolders, E, Verbeeck, M, Gu, S, Klumpp, E, Pohle, I, Fresne, M, and Gascuel-Odoux, C (2018). Challenges of reducing phosphorus based water eutrophication in the agricultural landscapes of northwest Europe. Frontiers in Marine Science 5, 276.
| Challenges of reducing phosphorus based water eutrophication in the agricultural landscapes of northwest Europe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bonell M, Williams J (1987) Infiltration and redistribution of overland flow and sediment on a low relief landscape of semi-arid, tropical Queensland. In ‘Forest Hydrology and Watershed Management. Publication No. 167’. (Eds RH Swanson, PY Bernier, PD Woodward) pp. 199–211. (International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS): Vancouver, Canada)
Bowen MK, Chudleigh F (2017) ‘Productivity and profitability of a range of alternative steer growth paths resulting from manipulating the pasture feed base in central Queensland: a modelling approach.’ (Department of Agriculture and Fisheries: Qld, Australia)
Bowen, MK, Chudleigh, F, Buck, S, and Hopkins, K (2018). Productivity and profitability of forage options for beef production in the subtropics of northern Australia. Animal Production Science 58, 332–342.
| Productivity and profitability of forage options for beef production in the subtropics of northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brakenseik DL, Osborn HB, Rawls WJ (1979) ‘Field manual for research in agricultural hydrology. Agriculture handbook No. 224.’ pp. 550. (United States Department of Agriculture: Washington, USA)
Buck, S, Rolfe, J, Lemin, C, and English, B (2019). Adoption, profitability and future of leucaena feeding systems in Australia. Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales 7, 303–314.
| Adoption, profitability and future of leucaena feeding systems in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Collins R, Grundy T (2005) ‘The butterfly pea book: a guide to establishing and managing butterfly pea pastures in central Queensland.’ (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries: Brisbane, Qld, Australia)
Conrad, KA, Dalal, RC, Allen, DE, Fujinuma, R, and Menzies, NW (2018). Free light fraction carbon and nitrogen, a physically uncomplexed soil organic matter distribution within subtropical grass and leucaena–grass pastures. Soil Research 56, 820–828.
| Free light fraction carbon and nitrogen, a physically uncomplexed soil organic matter distribution within subtropical grass and leucaena–grass pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cowie, BA, Thornton, CM, and Radford, BJ (2007). The Brigalow Catchment Study: I. Overview of a 40-year study of the effects of land clearing in the brigalow bioregion of Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 45, 479–495.
| The Brigalow Catchment Study: I. Overview of a 40-year study of the effects of land clearing in the brigalow bioregion of Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dasgupta, P (2008). Creative accounting. Nature 456, 44.
| Creative accounting.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Department of Environment and Science (2019) Reef 2050 water quality improvement plan: Fitzroy. Available at www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/reef-regions/fitzroy [accessed 4 November 2020]
Dhillon, GS, and Inamdar, S (2013). Extreme storms and changes in particulate and dissolved organic carbon in runoff: entering uncharted waters? Geophysical Research Letters 40, 1322–1327.
| Extreme storms and changes in particulate and dissolved organic carbon in runoff: entering uncharted waters?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Doetterl, S, Berhe, AA, Nadeu, E, Wang, Z, Sommer, M, and Fiener, P (2016). Erosion, deposition and soil carbon: A review of process-level controls, experimental tools and models to address C cycling in dynamic landscapes. Earth-Science Reviews 154, 102–122.
| Erosion, deposition and soil carbon: A review of process-level controls, experimental tools and models to address C cycling in dynamic landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dudney, J, Hallett, LM, Larios, L, Farrer, EC, Spotswood, EN, Stein, C, and Suding, KN (2017). Lagging behind: Have we overlooked previous-year rainfall effects in annual grasslands? Journal of Ecology 105, 484–495.
| Lagging behind: Have we overlooked previous-year rainfall effects in annual grasslands?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dunne, T, and Black, RD (1970). Partial area contributions to storm runoff in a small New England watershed. Water Resources Research 6, 1296–1311.
| Partial area contributions to storm runoff in a small New England watershed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
El-Sadek A, Radwan M, Abdel-Gawad S (2005) Analysis of load versus concentration as water quality measures. In ‘Proceedings of the 9th International Water Technology Conference’, Egypt. pp. 1281–1292. (International Water Technology Association)
Elledge, A, and Thornton, C (2017). Effect of changing land use from virgin brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) woodland to a crop or pasture system on sediment, nitrogen and phosphorus in runoff over 25 years in subtropical Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 239, 119–131.
| Effect of changing land use from virgin brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) woodland to a crop or pasture system on sediment, nitrogen and phosphorus in runoff over 25 years in subtropical Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Endale, DM, Fisher, DS, Owens, LB, Jenkins, MB, Schomberg, HH, Tebes-Stevens, CL, and Bonta, JV (2011). Runoff water quality during drought in a zero-order Georgia Piedmont pasture: nitrogen and total organic carbon. Journal of Environmental Quality 40, 969–979.
| Runoff water quality during drought in a zero-order Georgia Piedmont pasture: nitrogen and total organic carbon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ghahramani A (2021) HowLeaky: Open source water modelling environment to investigate impacts on a range of land uses, soils, management practices and climates. Available at https://howleaky.com/ [accessed 12 August 2021]
Gong, YH, Zhao, DM, Ke, WB, Fang, C, Pei, JY, Sun, GJ, and Ye, JS (2020). Legacy effects of precipitation amount and frequency on the aboveground plant biomass of a semi-arid grassland. Science of the Total Environment 705, 135899.
| Legacy effects of precipitation amount and frequency on the aboveground plant biomass of a semi-arid grassland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Guo, T, He, B, Jiang, X, Ma, Y, Yong, W, Xiang, M, Chen, Y, and Tang, C (2012). Effect of Leucaena leucocephala on soil organic carbon conservation on slope in the purple soil area. Acta Ecologica Sinica 32, 190–197.
| Effect of Leucaena leucocephala on soil organic carbon conservation on slope in the purple soil area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haan, MM, Russell, JR, Powers, WJ, Kovar, JL, and Benning, JL (2006). Grazing management effects on sediment and phosphorus in surface runoff. Rangeland Ecology & Management 59, 607–615.
| Grazing management effects on sediment and phosphorus in surface runoff.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hart, MR, and Cornish, PS (2012). Available soil phosphorus, phosphorus buffering and soil cover determine most variation in phosphorus concentration in runoff from pastoral sites. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 93, 227–244.
| Available soil phosphorus, phosphorus buffering and soil cover determine most variation in phosphorus concentration in runoff from pastoral sites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnson, RW (1968). Brigalow clearing and the control of regrowth. Tropical Grasslands 2, 115–118.
Johnson RW (2004) Vegetation survey of the Brigalow Research Station, Theodore, Queensland. In ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland’. pp. 39–61. (The Royal Society of Queensland: Brisbane)
Knapp, AK, Beier, C, Briske, DD, Classen, AT, Luo, Y, Reichstein, M, Smith, MD, Smith, SD, Bell, JE, Fay, PA, Heisler, JL, Leavitt, SW, Sherry, R, Smith, B, and Weng, E (2008). Consequences of more extreme precipitation regimes for terrestrial ecosystems. BioScience 58, 811–821.
| Consequences of more extreme precipitation regimes for terrestrial ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koci, J, Sidle, RC, Kinsey-Henderson, AE, Bartley, R, Wilkinson, SN, Hawdon, AA, Jarihani, B, Roth, CH, and Hogarth, L (2020). Effect of reduced grazing pressure on sediment and nutrient yields in savanna rangeland streams draining to the Great Barrier Reef. Journal of Hydrology 582, 124520.
| Effect of reduced grazing pressure on sediment and nutrient yields in savanna rangeland streams draining to the Great Barrier Reef.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koiter, AJ, Owens, PN, Petticrew, EL, and Lobb, DA (2017). The role of soil surface properties on the particle size and carbon selectivity of interrill erosion in agricultural landscapes. Catena 153, 194–206.
| The role of soil surface properties on the particle size and carbon selectivity of interrill erosion in agricultural landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lawrence D, Buck S, Johnson B, Peck G (2014) Fertilising for yield and quality in sown grass pastures and forage crops: final report (Project B.NBP.0768). Meat and Livestock Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Liu, F, Gao, C, Chen, M, and Li, K (2018). Above- and below-ground biomass relationships of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit in different plant stands. PLoS One 13, e0207059.
| Above- and below-ground biomass relationships of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit in different plant stands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Martínez-Mena, M, López, J, Almagro, M, Albaladejo, J, Castillo, V, Ortiz, R, and Boix-Fayos, C (2012). Organic carbon enrichment in sediments: Effects of rainfall characteristics under different land uses in a Mediterranean area. CATENA 94, 36–42.
| Organic carbon enrichment in sediments: Effects of rainfall characteristics under different land uses in a Mediterranean area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCosker T, Winks L (1994) Phosphorus nutrition of beef cattle in northern Australia (Report QI94012). Department of Primary industries, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.
McDowell, RW, Sharpley, AN, Crush, JR, and Simmons, T (2011). Phosphorus in pasture plants: potential implications for phosphorus loss in surface runoff. Plant and Soil 345, 23–35.
| Phosphorus in pasture plants: potential implications for phosphorus loss in surface runoff.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moravek T, Schrobback P, East M, Star M, Rust S (2017) Understanding the economics of grazing management practices and systems for improving water quality run-off from grazing lands in the Burdekin and Fitzroy Catchments. Reef Plan Action 4: Gap Analysis Report 2016. Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia.
Nachimuthu, G, and Hulugalle, N (2016). On-farm gains and losses of soil organic carbon in terrestrial hydrological pathways: a review of empirical research. International Soil and Water Conservation Research 4, 245–259.
| On-farm gains and losses of soil organic carbon in terrestrial hydrological pathways: a review of empirical research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nadeu, E, de Vente, J, Martínez-Mena, M, and Boix-Fayos, C (2011). Exploring particle size distribution and organic carbon pools mobilized by different erosion processes at the catchment scale. Journal of Soils and Sediments 11, 667–678.
| Exploring particle size distribution and organic carbon pools mobilized by different erosion processes at the catchment scale.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Narain, P, Singh, RK, Sindhwal, NS, and Joshie, P (1997). Agroforestry for soil and water conservation in the western Himalayan Valley Region of India 1. Runoff, soil and nutrient losses. Agroforestry Systems 39, 175–189.
| Agroforestry for soil and water conservation in the western Himalayan Valley Region of India 1. Runoff, soil and nutrient losses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Narain, P, Singh, RK, Sindhwal, NS, and Joshie, P (1998). Water balance and water use efficiency of different land uses in western Himalayan valley region. Agricultural Water Management 37, 225–240.
| Water balance and water use efficiency of different land uses in western Himalayan valley region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nelson, PN, Cotsaris, E, and Oades, JM (1996). Nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic carbon in streams draining two grazed catchments. Journal of Environmental Quality 25, 1221–1229.
| Nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic carbon in streams draining two grazed catchments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oesterheld, M, Loreti, J, Semmartin, M, and Sala, OE (2001). Inter-annual variation in primary production of a semi-arid grassland related to previous-year production. Journal of Vegetation Science 12, 137–142.
| Inter-annual variation in primary production of a semi-arid grassland related to previous-year production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ogden, FL, Crouch, TD, Stallard, RF, and Hall, JS (2013). Effect of land cover and use on dry season river runoff, runoff efficiency, and peak storm runoff in the seasonal tropics of central Panama. Water Resources Research 49, 8443–8462.
| Effect of land cover and use on dry season river runoff, runoff efficiency, and peak storm runoff in the seasonal tropics of central Panama.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Packett, R (2017). Rainfall contributes ~30% of the dissolved inorganic nitrogen exported from a southern Great Barrier Reef river basin. Marine Pollution Bulletin 121, 16–31.
| Rainfall contributes ~30% of the dissolved inorganic nitrogen exported from a southern Great Barrier Reef river basin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Quinn, JM, and Stroud, MJ (2002). Water quality and sediment and nutrient export from New Zealand hill‐land catchments of contrasting land use. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 36, 409–429.
| Water quality and sediment and nutrient export from New Zealand hill‐land catchments of contrasting land use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Radford, BJ, Thornton, CM, Cowie, BA, and Stephens, ML (2007). The Brigalow Catchment Study: III. Productivity changes on brigalow land cleared for long-term cropping and for grazing. Australian Journal of Soil Research 45, 512–523.
| The Brigalow Catchment Study: III. Productivity changes on brigalow land cleared for long-term cropping and for grazing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ringrose-Voase, AJ, and Nadelko, AJ (2013). Deep drainage in a Grey Vertosol under furrow-irrigated cotton. Crop & Pasture Science 64, 1155–1170.
| Deep drainage in a Grey Vertosol under furrow-irrigated cotton.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robertson, FA, Myers, RJK, and Saffigna, PG (1997). Nitrogen cycling in brigalow clay soils under pasture and cropping. Australian Journal of Soil Research 35, 1323–1339.
| Nitrogen cycling in brigalow clay soils under pasture and cropping.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roots K (2016) ‘Land area under various soil orders extracted for grazing in the Fitzroy Basin using layers sourced from the Queensland Government’s Spatial Information Resource (SIR) database: ‘SLR.ASRIS_ASR_L4_2M_RESULTS_V’ Australian Soil Resource Information System (ASRIS) Level 4 (1:2,000,000 scale) Australian Soil Classifications replaced with sections of ‘SLR.ASRIS_ASR_L5_250K_RESULTS_V’ Level 5 (1:250,000 scale) where available; ‘RSC.QLD_LANDUSE_CURRENT_X’ land use map which is a product of the ‘Queensland Land Use Mapping Program (QLUMP)’; and ‘P2R_56_sub_basins’ shapefile provided by C. Dougall (Paddock to Reef modeller, Department of Natural Resources and Mines) dissolved to the Fitzroy Basin using ‘PROP.QLD_NRMREGBDY_100K’ natural resource management boundaries. Developed using ArcGIS version 10.3.’ (Department of Natural Resources and Mines: Rockhampton, Qld, Australia)
Schepers, JS, and Francis, DD (1982). Chemical water quality of runoff from grazing land in Nebraska: I. Influence of grazing livestock. Journal of Environmental Quality 11, 351–354.
| Chemical water quality of runoff from grazing land in Nebraska: I. Influence of grazing livestock.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sharpley A (1995) Fate and transport of nutrients: phosphorus. Working paper no. 8. Available at www.nrcs.usda.gov [accessed 2 June 2020]
Shelton, M, and Dalzell, S (2007). Production, economic and environmental benefits of leucaena pastures. Tropical Grasslands 41, 174–190.
Sigua, GC, Hubbard, RK, Coleman, SW, and Williams, M (2010). Nitrogen in soils, plants, surface water and shallow groundwater in a bahiagrass pasture of Southern Florida, USA. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 86, 175–187.
| Nitrogen in soils, plants, surface water and shallow groundwater in a bahiagrass pasture of Southern Florida, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Silburn, DM, Cowie, BA, and Thornton, CM (2009). The Brigalow Catchment Study revisited: effects of land development on deep drainage determined from non-steady chloride profiles. Journal of Hydrology 373, 487–498.
| The Brigalow Catchment Study revisited: effects of land development on deep drainage determined from non-steady chloride profiles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sims, NC, and Colloff, MJ (2012). Remote sensing of vegetation responses to flooding of a semi-arid floodplain: implications for monitoring ecological effects of environmental flows. Ecological Indicators 18, 387–391.
| Remote sensing of vegetation responses to flooding of a semi-arid floodplain: implications for monitoring ecological effects of environmental flows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stacy, EM, Hart, SC, Hunsaker, CT, Johnson, DW, and Berhe, AA (2015). Soil carbon and nitrogen erosion in forested catchments: implications for erosion-induced terrestrial carbon sequestration. Biogeosciences 12, 4861–4874.
| Soil carbon and nitrogen erosion in forested catchments: implications for erosion-induced terrestrial carbon sequestration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
The State of Queensland (2022) Soil and Land Information (SALI): Soil Chemistry Application Programming Interface (API). Available at www.data.qld.gov.au/dataset/sali-soil-chemistry-api [accessed 29 March 2022].
Thornton CM, Elledge AE (2013) Runoff nitrogen, phosphorus and sediment generation rates from pasture legumes: an enhancement to reef catchment modelling (Project RRRD009). Report to the Reef Rescue Water Quality Research and Development Program. Reef and Rainforest Research Centre Ltd, Cairns, Qld, Australia.
Thornton CM, Elledge AE (2019) Agricultural land management practices and water quality in the Fitzroy Basin: technical report for the 2015 to 2019 hydrological years. Addendum to ‘Paddock scale water quality monitoring of grazing management practices in the Fitzroy Basin: technical report on the effect of grazing pressure on water quality for the 2015 to 2018 hydrological years’. Report to the Queensland Reef Water Quality Program. Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy, Rockhampton, Qld, Australia.
Thornton, CM, and Elledge, AE (2021). Heavy grazing of buffel grass pasture in the Brigalow Belt bioregion of Queensland, Australia, more than tripled runoff and exports of total suspended solids compared to conservative grazing. Marine Pollution Bulletin 171, 112704.
| Heavy grazing of buffel grass pasture in the Brigalow Belt bioregion of Queensland, Australia, more than tripled runoff and exports of total suspended solids compared to conservative grazing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thornton, CM, and Shrestha, K (2021). The Brigalow Catchment Study: V. Clearing and burning brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) in Queensland, Australia, temporarily increases surface soil fertility prior to nutrient decline under cropping or grazing. Soil Research 59, 146–169.
| The Brigalow Catchment Study: V. Clearing and burning brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) in Queensland, Australia, temporarily increases surface soil fertility prior to nutrient decline under cropping or grazing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thornton, CM, and Yu, B (2016). The Brigalow Catchment Study: IV. Clearing brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) for cropping or grazing increases peak runoff rate. Soil Research 54, 749–759.
| The Brigalow Catchment Study: IV. Clearing brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) for cropping or grazing increases peak runoff rate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thornton, CM, Cowie, BA, Freebairn, DM, and Playford, CL (2007). The Brigalow Catchment Study: II. Clearing brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) for cropping or pasture increases runoff. Australian Journal of Soil Research 45, 496–511.
| The Brigalow Catchment Study: II. Clearing brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) for cropping or pasture increases runoff.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Trimble, SW, and Mendel, AC (1995). The cow as a geomorphic agent: a critical review. Geomorphology 13, 233–253.
| The cow as a geomorphic agent: a critical review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Udawatta, RP, Henderson, GS, Jones, JR, and Hammer, D (2011). Phosphorus and nitrogen losses in relation to forest, pasture and row-crop land use and precipitation distribution in the midwest usa. Journal of Water Science 24, 269–281.
| Phosphorus and nitrogen losses in relation to forest, pasture and row-crop land use and precipitation distribution in the midwest usa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vink, S, Ford, PW, Bormans, M, Kelly, C, and Turley, C (2007). Contrasting nutrient exports from a forested and an agricultural catchment in south-eastern Australia. Biogeochemistry 84, 247–264.
| Contrasting nutrient exports from a forested and an agricultural catchment in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |