Free Standard AU & NZ Shipping For All Book Orders Over $80!
Register      Login
The Rangeland Journal The Rangeland Journal Society
Journal of the Australian Rangeland Society
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Native seed for restoration: a discussion of key issues using examples from the flora of southern Australia

Linda Broadhurst A D , Cathy Waters B and David Coates C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, CSIRO National Research Collections Australia, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.

B NSW Department of Primary Industries, Trangie Agricultural Research Centre, PMB 19, Trangie, NSW 2823, Australia.

C Science and Conservation Division, Department of Parks and Wildlife, PO Box 104, Bentley Delivery Centre, 6983, Australia.

D Corresponding author. Email: Linda.Broadhurst@csiro.au

The Rangeland Journal 39(6) 487-498 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ17055
Submitted: 5 April 2017  Accepted: 18 October 2017   Published: 8 December 2017

Abstract

Land clearing across southern Australia since European settlement has fundamentally changed the amount and distribution of native vegetation; it has also substantially reduced genetic diversity in plant species throughout Australia, especially in agricultural regions. The most recent State of the Environment report indicates that Australian biodiversity continues to decline. Many approaches to restoration are used in Australia including re-establishing plant populations using tube stock or by direct seeding. Native seed for these projects is often assumed to be plentiful and available for the majority of species we wish to restore but these assumptions are rarely true. We also rely on a small number of species for the majority of restoration projects despite the vast number of species required to fully restore complex plant communities. The majority of seed for restoration is still primarily collected from native vegetation despite longstanding concerns regarding the sustainability of this practice and the globally recognised impacts of vegetation fragmentation on seed production and genetic diversity. Climate change is also expected to challenge seed production as temperatures rise and water availability becomes more limited; changes to current planting practices may also be required. Until now native seed collection has relied on market forces to build a strong and efficient industry sector, but in reality the Australian native seed market is primarily driven by Federal, State and Territory funding. In addition, unlike other seed-based agri-businesses native seed collection lacks national industry standards. A new approach is required to support development of the native seed collection and use sector into an innovative industry.

Additional keywords: climate change, genetic diversity, inbreeding, polyploidy.


References

Aguilar, R., Ashworth, L., Galetto, L., and Aizen, M. A. (2006). Plant reproduction susceptibility to habitat fragmentation: review and synthesis through a meta-analysis. Ecology Letters 9, 968–980.
Plant reproduction susceptibility to habitat fragmentation: review and synthesis through a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Aguilar, R., Quesada, M., Ashworth, L., Herrerias-Diego, Y., and Lobo, J. (2008). Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation in plant populations: susceptible signals in plant traits and methodological approaches. Molecular Ecology 17, 5177–5188.
Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation in plant populations: susceptible signals in plant traits and methodological approaches.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Andrew, R. L., Miller, J. T., Peakall, R., Crisp, M. D., and Bayer, R. J. (2003). Genetic, cytogenetic and morphological patterns in a mixed mulga population: evidence for apomixis. Australian Systematic Botany 16, 69–80.
Genetic, cytogenetic and morphological patterns in a mixed mulga population: evidence for apomixis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXms1yru7c%3D&md5=fa49f65fda10bcfb707a7d34f48bdc68CAS |

Angeloni, F., Ouborg, N. J., and Leimu, R. (2011). Meta-analysis on the association of population size and life history with inbreeding depression in plants. Biological Conservation 144, 35–43.
Meta-analysis on the association of population size and life history with inbreeding depression in plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Auld, T. D., Keith, D. A., and Bradstock, R. A. (2000). Patterns in longevity of soil seedbanks in fire-prone communities of south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 48, 539–548.
Patterns in longevity of soil seedbanks in fire-prone communities of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Australian Government. Australian Government 20 Million Trees. Available at: http://environment.gov.au/land/20-million-trees (accessed 18 August 2017).

Australian Seed Bank Partnership (2017). Australian Seed Bank Partnership. Available at: http://seedpartnership.org.au/ (accessed 9 March 2017).

Bean, J. M., Melville, G. J., Hacker, R. B., and Clipperton, S. P. (2015). Seed availability, landscape suitability and the regeneration of perennial grasses in moderately degraded rangelands in semiarid Australia. The Rangeland Journal 37, 249–259.
Seed availability, landscape suitability and the regeneration of perennial grasses in moderately degraded rangelands in semiarid Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bean, J. M., Melville, G. J., Hacker, R. B., Anderson, S., Whittington, A., and Clipperton, S. P. (2016). Effects of fenced seed production areas and restoration treatments on the size and composition of the native grass seedbanks in moderately degraded rangelands in semiarid Australia. The Rangeland Journal 38, 47–56.
Effects of fenced seed production areas and restoration treatments on the size and composition of the native grass seedbanks in moderately degraded rangelands in semiarid Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Botanic Gardens & Parks Authority (2017). Restoration Seedbank. Available at: www.bgpa.wa.gov.au/about-us/conservation/research/seed-conservation/restoration-seedbank (accessed 17 August 2017).

Bradby, K., Keesing, A., and Wardell-Johnson, G. (2016). Gondwana Link: connecting people, landscapes, and livelihoods across southwestern Australia. Restoration Ecology 24, 827–835.
Gondwana Link: connecting people, landscapes, and livelihoods across southwestern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Breed, M. F., Stead, M. G., Ottewell, K. M., Gardner, M. G., and Lowe, A. J. (2013). Which provenance and where? Seed sourcing strategies for revegetation in a changing environment. Conservation Genetics 14, 1–10.
Which provenance and where? Seed sourcing strategies for revegetation in a changing environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Breed, M. F., Ottewell, K. M., Gardner, M. G., Marklund, M. H. K., Dormontt, E. E., and Lowe, A. J. (2015a). Mating patterns and pollinator mobility are critical traits in forest fragmentation genetics. Heredity 115, 108–114.
Mating patterns and pollinator mobility are critical traits in forest fragmentation genetics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3sbltVeiug%3D%3D&md5=df2a8db755349ca5840763602b36bdf8CAS |

Breed, M. F., Ottewell, K. M., Gardner, M. G., Marklund, M. H. K., Stead, M. G., Harris, J. B. C., and Lowe, A. J. (2015b). Mating system and early viability resistance to habitat fragmentation in a bird-pollinated eucalypt. Heredity 115, 100–107.
Mating system and early viability resistance to habitat fragmentation in a bird-pollinated eucalypt.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3s7mvFKqsg%3D%3D&md5=ef9cb44a07e98cd31418b2dd2ca9d0c6CAS |

Broadhurst, L. M. (2011). Genetic diversity and population genetic structure in fragmented Allocasuarina verticillata (Allocasuarinaceae) – implications for restoration. Australian Journal of Botany 59, 770–780.

Broadhurst, L. M. (2013). A genetic analysis of scattered Yellow Box trees (Eucalyptus melliodora A.Cunn. ex Schauer, Myrtaceae) and their restored cohorts. Biological Conservation 161, 48–57.
A genetic analysis of scattered Yellow Box trees (Eucalyptus melliodora A.Cunn. ex Schauer, Myrtaceae) and their restored cohorts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Broadhurst, L. M., and Young, A. G. (2007). Seeing the wood and the trees – predicting the future for fragmented plant populations in Australian landscapes. Australian Journal of Botany 55, 250–260.
Seeing the wood and the trees – predicting the future for fragmented plant populations in Australian landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Broadhurst, L. M., Young, A. G., Thrall, P. H., and Murray, B. G. (2006). Sourcing seed for Acacia acinacea, a key revegetation species in south-eastern Australia. Conservation Genetics 7, 49–63.
Sourcing seed for Acacia acinacea, a key revegetation species in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Broadhurst, L., Lowe, A., Coates, D., Cunningham, S., McDonald, M., Vesk, P., and Yates, C. (2008a). Seed supply for broadscale restoration: maximizing evolutionary potential. Evolutionary Applications 1, 587–597.

Broadhurst, L. M., Young, A. G., and Forrester, R. (2008b). Genetic and demographic responses of fragmented Acacia dealbata (Mimosaceae) populations in southeast Australia. Biological Conservation 141, 2843–2856.
Genetic and demographic responses of fragmented Acacia dealbata (Mimosaceae) populations in southeast Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Broadhurst, L. M., Murray, B. G., Forrester, R., and Young, A. G. (2012). Cryptic genetic variability in Swainsona sericea (A. Lee) H. Eichler (Fabaceae) – lessons for restoration. Australian Journal of Botany 60, 429–438.
Cryptic genetic variability in Swainsona sericea (A. Lee) H. Eichler (Fabaceae) – lessons for restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Broadhurst, L., Driver, M., Guja, L., North, T., Vanzella, B., Fifield, G., Bruce, S., Taylor, D., and Bush, D. (2015). Seeding the future – the issues of supply and demand in restoration. Ecological Management & Restoration 16, 29–32.
Seeding the future – the issues of supply and demand in restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Broadhurst, L., Jones, T. A., Smith, F. S., North, T., and Guja, L. (2016a). Maximizing seed resources for restoration in an uncertain future. Bioscience 66, 73–79.
Maximizing seed resources for restoration in an uncertain future.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Broadhurst, L., Wilson, J., Skinner, A. K., Brunt, K., Day, P., Baker, T., Dwyer, S., Doerr, V., and Rogers, D. (2016b). ‘Climate-ready Restoration – Some Practical Guidelines for Plant Restoration in an Uncertain Future.’ (CSIRO: Canberra) Available at: www.terranova.org.au/repository/murray-basin-nrm-collection/murray-basin-nrm-climate-ready-practical-restoration-guidelines-powerpoint-presentation/ murray-basin-nrm-climate-ready-restoration.pdf/view (accessed 9 March 2017).

Broadhurst, L., Hopley, T., Li, L., and Begley, J. (2017a). A genetic assessment of seed production areas (SPAs) for restoration. Conservation Genetics , .
A genetic assessment of seed production areas (SPAs) for restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Broadhurst, L., Prober, S., Dickson, F., and Bush, D. (2017b). Using restoration as an experimental framework to test provenancing strategies and climate adaptability. Ecological Management & Restoration 18, 205–208.
Using restoration as an experimental framework to test provenancing strategies and climate adaptability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Buza, L., Young, A., and Thrall, P. (2000). Genetic erosion, inbreeding and reduced fitness in fragmented populations of the endangered tetraploid pea Swainsona recta. Biological Conservation 93, 177–186.
Genetic erosion, inbreeding and reduced fitness in fragmented populations of the endangered tetraploid pea Swainsona recta.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Byers, D. L., and Meagher, T. R. (1992). Mate availability in small populations of plant species with homomorphic sporophytic self-incompatibility. Heredity 68, 353–359.
Mate availability in small populations of plant species with homomorphic sporophytic self-incompatibility.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Byrne, M., Stone, L., and Millar, M. A. (2011). Assessing genetic risk in revegetation. Journal of Applied Ecology 48, 1365–1373.
Assessing genetic risk in revegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coates, D. J. (1988). Genetic diversity and population genetic structure in the rare Chittering Grass Wattle, Acacia anomala Court. Australian Journal of Botany 36, 273–286.
Genetic diversity and population genetic structure in the rare Chittering Grass Wattle, Acacia anomala Court.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coates, D. J., Tischler, G., and McComb, J. A. (2006). Genetic variation and the mating system in the rare Acacia sciophanes compared with its common congener species Acaia anfractuosa (Mimosaceae). Conservation Genetics 7, 931–944.
Genetic variation and the mating system in the rare Acacia sciophanes compared with its common congener species Acaia anfractuosa (Mimosaceae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coates, D. J., Sampson, J. F., and Yates, C. J. (2007). Plant mating systems and assessing population persistence in fragmented landscapes. Australian Journal of Botany 55, 239–249.
Plant mating systems and assessing population persistence in fragmented landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coates, D. J., Williams, M. R., and Madden, S. (2013). Temporal and spatial mating-system variation in fragmented populations of Banksia cuneata, a rare bird-pollinated long-lived plant. Australian Journal of Botany 61, 235–242.
Temporal and spatial mating-system variation in fragmented populations of Banksia cuneata, a rare bird-pollinated long-lived plant.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cole, I. A., and Johnston, W. H. (2006). Seed production of Australian native grass cultivars: An overview of current information and future research needs. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, 361–373.
Seed production of Australian native grass cultivars: An overview of current information and future research needs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Convention on Biological Diversity (2017). Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Available at: www.cbd.int/sp/targets/ (accessed 18 August 2017).

Costa e Silva, J., Hardner, C., Tilyard, P., Pires, A. M., and Potts, B. M. (2010). Effects of inbreeding on population mean performance and observational variances in Eucalyptus globulus. Annals of Forest Science 67, 605.
Effects of inbreeding on population mean performance and observational variances in Eucalyptus globulus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cresswell, I., and Murphy, H. (2017). ‘Australia State of the Environment 2016: Biodiversity, Independent Report to the Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Energy.’ (Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy: Canberra.)

Cunningham, S. A. (2000a). Depressed pollination in habitat fragments causes low fruit set. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 267, 1149–1152.
Depressed pollination in habitat fragments causes low fruit set.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M%2FhtFCksw%3D%3D&md5=a7ef94514a288a929412d29a963627fdCAS |

Cunningham, S. A. (2000b). Effects of habitat fragmentation on the reproductive ecology of four plant species in mallee woodland. Conservation Biology 14, 758–768.
Effects of habitat fragmentation on the reproductive ecology of four plant species in mallee woodland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dawson, S. K., Kingsford, R. T., Berney, P., Keith, D. A., Hemmings, F. A., Warton, D. I., Waters, C., and Catford, J. A. (2017). Frequent inundation helps counteract land use impacts on wetland propagule banks. Applied Vegetation Science 20, 459–467.
Frequent inundation helps counteract land use impacts on wetland propagule banks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Department of the Environment and Energy (2015). Department of the Environment and Energy 30 Plants by 2020. Available at: www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/30-plants-by-2020 (accessed 17 August 2017).

Eckert, C. G., Kalisz, S., Geber, M. A., Sargent, R., Elle, E., Cheptou, P.-O., Goodwillie, C., Johnston, M. O., Kelly, J. K., Moeller, D. A., Porcher, E., Ree, R. H., Vallejo-Marin, M., and Winn, A. A. (2010). Plant mating systems in a changing world. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25, 35–43.
Plant mating systems in a changing world.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ellstrand, N. C., and Elam, D. R. (1993). Population genetics consequences of small population size: implications for plant conservation. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 24, 217–242.
Population genetics consequences of small population size: implications for plant conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Falk, D., Palmer, M., and Zedler, J. (2006). ‘Foundations of Restoration Ecology.’ (Island Press: Washington, DC.)

Field, D. L., Ayre, D. J., Whelan, R. J., and Young, A. G. (2008). Relative frequency of sympatric species influences rates of interspecific hybridization, seed production and seedling performance in the uncommon Eucalyptus aggregata. Journal of Ecology 96, 1198–1210.
Relative frequency of sympatric species influences rates of interspecific hybridization, seed production and seedling performance in the uncommon Eucalyptus aggregata.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Florabank (1998). Florabank Guidelines and Species Sheets. Available at: www.greeningaustralia.org.au/florabank (accessed 13 May 2017).

Foley, J. A., DeFries, R., Asner, G. P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S. R., Chapin, S., Coe, M. T., Daily, G. C., Gibbs, H. K., Helklowski, J. H., Holloway, T., Howard, E. A., Kucharik, C. J., Monfreda, C., Patz, J. A., Prentice, C. I., Ramankutty, N., and Snyder, P. K. (2005). Global consequences of land use. Science 309, 570–574.
Global consequences of land use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXmsFChtrs%3D&md5=6df23d9f5ae96137f919afd5e3459211CAS |

Frankham, R., Ballou, J. D., Eldridge, M. D. B., Lacy, R. C., Ralls, K., Dudash, M. R., and Fenster, C. B. (2011). Predicting the probability of outbreeding depression. Conservation Biology 25, 465–475.
Predicting the probability of outbreeding depression.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Frankham, R., Ballou, J. D., Ralls, K., Eldridge, M., Dudash, M. R., Fenster, C. B., Lacy, R. C., and Sunnucks, P. (2017). ‘Genetic Management of Fragmented Animal and Plant Populations.’ (Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK.)

Frei, E. R., Ghazoul, J., Matter, P., Heggli, M., and Pluess, A. R. (2014). Plant population differentiation and climate change: responses of grassland species along an elevational gradient. Global Change Biology 20, 441–455.
Plant population differentiation and climate change: responses of grassland species along an elevational gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gellie, N. J. C., Breed, M. F., Thurgate, N., Kennedy, S. A., and Lowe, A. J. (2016). Local maladaptation in a foundation tree species: implications for restoration. Biological Conservation 203, 226–232.
Local maladaptation in a foundation tree species: implications for restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gerla, P., Cornett, M., Ekstein, J., and Ahlering, M. (2012). Talking big: lessons learned from a 9000 hectare restoration in the northern tallgrass prairie. Sustainability 4, 3066–3087.
Talking big: lessons learned from a 9000 hectare restoration in the northern tallgrass prairie.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gibson-Roy, P. (2015). The Ron Badman Family Churchill Fellowship to Investigate Techniques for Producing Species-rich Native Seed Crops for Biodiversity Restoration – USA. Available at: www.churchilltrust.com.au/fellows/detail/4019/Paul+Gibson%20Roy (accessed 17 August 2017).

Gibson-Roy, P., and Delpratt, J. (2015). The restoration of native grasslands. In: ‘Land of Sweeping Plains: Managing and Restoring the Native Grasslands of South-eastern Australia’. (Eds N. Williams, A. Marshall and J. Morgan.) pp. 331–387. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Gibson-Roy, P., Moore, G., Delpratt, J., and Gardner, J. (2010). Expanding horizons for herbaceous ecosystem restoration: the Grassy Groundcover Restoration Project. Ecological Management & Restoration 11, 176–186.
Expanding horizons for herbaceous ecosystem restoration: the Grassy Groundcover Restoration Project.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Godefroid, S., Piazza, C., Rossi, G., Buord, S., Stevens, A. D., Aguraiuja, R., Cowell, C., Weekley, C. W., Vogg, G., Iriondo, J. M., Johnson, I., Dixon, B., Gordon, D., Magnanon, S., Valentin, B., Bjureke, K., Koopman, R., Vicens, M., Virevaire, M., and Vanderborght, T. (2011). How successful are plant species reintroductions? Biological Conservation 144, 672–682.
How successful are plant species reintroductions?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gondwanan Link (2014). Gondwanan Link. Available at: www.gondwanalink.org/ (accessed 18 August 2017).

Grant, V. (1981). ‘Plant Speciation.’ (Columbia University Press: New York.)

Gritzner, J., Milan, G., and Berry, L. (2011). The earth restoration project: an overview. In: ‘Engineering Earth: The Impacts of Megaengineering Projects’. (Ed. S. Brunn.) pp. 1343–1352. (Springer: Dordrecht.)

Groves, R., and Whalley, R. (2002). Grass and grassland ecology in Australia. Flora of Australia 43, 157–182.

Hadley, A. S., and Betts, M. G. (2012). The effects of landscape fragmentation on pollination dynamics: absence of evidence not evidence of absence. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 87, 526–544.
The effects of landscape fragmentation on pollination dynamics: absence of evidence not evidence of absence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hajkowicz, S. (2009). The evolution of Australia’s natural resource management programs: towards improved targeting and evaluation of investments. Land Use Policy 26, 471–478.
The evolution of Australia’s natural resource management programs: towards improved targeting and evaluation of investments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hancock, N., and Hughes, L. (2014). Turning up the heat on the provenance debate: testing the ‘local is best’ paradigm under heatwave conditions. Austral Ecology 39, 600–611.
Turning up the heat on the provenance debate: testing the ‘local is best’ paradigm under heatwave conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hancock, N., Leishman, M., and Hughes, L. (2013). Testing the “local provenance” paradigm: a common garden experiment in Cumberland Plain woodland, Sydney, Australia. Restoration Ecology 21, 569–577.
Testing the “local provenance” paradigm: a common garden experiment in Cumberland Plain woodland, Sydney, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hancock, N., Harris, R., Broadhurst, L., and Hughes, L. (2016). ‘Climate-ready Revegetation – A Guide for Natural Resource Managers.’ (Macquarie University: Sydney.)

Hardner, C., and Tibbett, M. (1998). Inbreeding depression for growth, wood and fecundity traits in Eucalyptus nitens. Forest Genetics 5, 11–20.

Hassan, R., Scholes, R., and Ash, R. (Eds) (2005). ‘Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends. Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group.’ (Island Press: Washington, DC.)

Havens, K., Vitt, P., Still, S., Kramer, A. T., Fant, J. B., and Schatz, K. (2015). Seed sourcing for restoration in an era of climate change. Natural Resources Journal 35, 122–133.

Hobbs, R. J., and Harris, J. A. (2001). Restoration ecology: repairing the Earth’s ecosystems in the new millennium. Restoration Ecology 9, 239–246.
Restoration ecology: repairing the Earth’s ecosystems in the new millennium.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hoffmann, B. D., and Broadhurst, L. M. (2016). The economic cost of managing invasive species in Australia. NeoBiota 31, 1–18.
The economic cost of managing invasive species in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jackson, W., Argent, R., Bax, N., Clark, G., Coleman, S., Cresswell, I., Emmerson, K., Evans, K., Hibberd, M., Johnston, E., Keywood, M., Klekociuk, A., Mackay, R., Metcalfe, D., Murphy, H., Rankin, A., Smith, D., and Wienecke, B. (2017). ‘Australia State of the Environment 2016: Overview, Independent Report to the Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Energy.’ (Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy: Canberra.)

Kearns, C. A., Inouye, D. W., and Waser, N. M. (1998). Endangered mutualisms: the conservation of plant-pollinator interactions. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29, 83–112.
Endangered mutualisms: the conservation of plant-pollinator interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kenrick, J., Kaul, V., and Williams, E. G. (1986). Self-incompatibility in Acacia retinoides: site of pollen-tube arrest is the nucellus. Planta 169, 245–250.
Self-incompatibility in Acacia retinoides: site of pollen-tube arrest is the nucellus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC2c7mvVOjsw%3D%3D&md5=5af931948d413ae1b36f1b61604e70f2CAS |

Krauss, S. L., Hermanutz, L., Hopper, S. D., and Coates, D. J. (2007). Population-size effects on seeds and seedlings from fragmented eucalypt populations: implications for seed sourcing for ecological restoration. Australian Journal of Botany 55, 390–399.
Population-size effects on seeds and seedlings from fragmented eucalypt populations: implications for seed sourcing for ecological restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Leimu, R., and Fischer, M. (2008). A meta-analysis of local adaptation in plants. PLoS One 3, e4010.
A meta-analysis of local adaptation in plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lesica, P., and Allendorf, F. W. (1999). Ecological genetics and the restoration of plant communities: mix or match? Restoration Ecology 7, 42–50.
Ecological genetics and the restoration of plant communities: mix or match?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Llorens, T., Yates, C., Byrne, M., Nistelberger, H., Williams, M., and Coates, D. (2013). Complex interactions between remnant shape and the mating system strongly influence reproductive output and progeny performance in fragmented populations of a bird-pollinated shrub. Biological Conservation 164, 129–139.
Complex interactions between remnant shape and the mating system strongly influence reproductive output and progeny performance in fragmented populations of a bird-pollinated shrub.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lodge, G. M. (1996). Temperate native Australian grass improvement by selection. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 39, 487–497.
Temperate native Australian grass improvement by selection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lodge, G., and Whalley, R. (1981). Establishment of warm- and cool-season native perennial grasses on the North-West slopes of New South Wales. I. Dormancy and germination. Australian Journal of Botany 29, 111–119.
Establishment of warm- and cool-season native perennial grasses on the North-West slopes of New South Wales. I. Dormancy and germination.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Macfadyen, S., Cunningham, S. A., Costamagna, A. C., and Schellhorn, N. A. (2012). Managing ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes: are the solutions the same? Journal of Applied Ecology 49, 690–694.
Managing ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes: are the solutions the same?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Magcale-Macandog, D., and Whalley, R. (1994). Factors affecting the distribution and abundance of Microlaena stipoides (Labill.) R.br. on the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales. The Rangeland Journal 16, 26–38.
Factors affecting the distribution and abundance of Microlaena stipoides (Labill.) R.br. on the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McKay, J. K., Christian, C. E., Harrison, S. P., and Rice, K. J. (2005). “How local is local?” – a review of practical and conceptual issues in the genetics of restoration. Restoration Ecology 13, 432–440.
“How local is local?” – a review of practical and conceptual issues in the genetics of restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McLean, E., Prober, S., Stock, W., Steane, D. A., Potts, B. M., Vaillancourt, R. E., and Byrne, M. (2014). Plasticity of functional traits varies clinally along a rainfall gradient in Eucalyptus tricarpa. Plant, Cell & Environment 37, 1440–1451.
Plasticity of functional traits varies clinally along a rainfall gradient in Eucalyptus tricarpa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXntlWntLc%3D&md5=2bf82e8d56752c52ca724d0a1814c340CAS |

Meissen, J. C., Galatowitsch, S. M., and Cornett, M. W. (2015). Risks of overharvesting seed from native tallgrass prairies. Restoration Ecology 23, 882–891.
Risks of overharvesting seed from native tallgrass prairies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Metcalfe, D., and Bui, E. (2016). Land: land. In: ‘Australia State of the Environment 2016’. (Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy: Canberra.)

Millar, M. A., Byrne, M., Nuberg, I. K., and Sedgley, M. (2012). High levels of genetic contamination in remnant populations of Acacia saligna from a genetically divergent planted stand. Restoration Ecology 20, 260–267.
High levels of genetic contamination in remnant populations of Acacia saligna from a genetically divergent planted stand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Millar, M. A., Coates, D. J., and Byrne, M. (2014). Extensive long-distance pollen dispersal and highly outcrossed mating in historically small and disjunct populations of Acacia woodmaniorum (Fabaceae), a rare banded iron formation endemic. Annals of Botany 114, 961–971.
Extensive long-distance pollen dispersal and highly outcrossed mating in historically small and disjunct populations of Acacia woodmaniorum (Fabaceae), a rare banded iron formation endemic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). ‘Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Current Status and Trends.’ Vol. 1. (Island Press: Washington, DC.)

Mimura, M., Barbour, R. C., Potts, B. M., Vaillancourt, R. E., and Watanabe, K. N. (2009). Comparison of contemporary mating patterns in continuous and fragmented Eucalyptus globulus native forests. Molecular Ecology 18, 4180–4192.
Comparison of contemporary mating patterns in continuous and fragmented Eucalyptus globulus native forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mitchell, M. L., Virgona, J. M., Jacobs, J. L., and Kemp, D. R. (2014). Population biology of Microlaena stipoides in a south-eastern Australian pasture. Crop & Pasture Science 65, 767–779.
Population biology of Microlaena stipoides in a south-eastern Australian pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moncur, M., Moran, G., and Grant, J. (1991). Factors limiting seed production in Acacia mearnsii. In: ‘Advances in Tropical Acacia Research’. Vol. 35. (Ed. J. W. Turnbull.) pp. 20–25. (ACIAR: Canberra.)

Monks, L., Coates, D., Bell, T., and Bowles, M. L. (2012). Determining success criteria for reintroductions of threatened long-lived plants. In: ‘Plant Reintroduction in a Changing Climate: Promises and Perils’. (Eds J. Maschinski, K. E. Haskins and P. H. Raven.) pp. 189–208. (Island Press/Center for Resource Economics: Washington, DC.)

Morgan, J. (2015). Do we need a moratorium on seed collection of rare plants in small remnants?? Available at: http://morganvegdynamics.blogspot.com.au/2015/05/do-we-need-moritorium-on-seed.html (accessed 17 August 2017).

Morgan, A., Carthew, S. M., and Sedgley, M. (2002). Breeding system, reproductive efficiency and weed potential of Acacia baileyana. Australian Journal of Botany 50, 357–364.
Breeding system, reproductive efficiency and weed potential of Acacia baileyana.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mortlock, W. (2000). Local seed for revegetation: where will all that seed come from? Ecological Management & Restoration 1, 93–101.
Local seed for revegetation: where will all that seed come from?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Murray, B. G., and Young, A. G. (2001). Widespread chromosome variation in the endangered grassland forb Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides F. Muell. (Asteraceae: Gnaphalieae). Annals of Botany 87, 83–90.
Widespread chromosome variation in the endangered grassland forb Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides F. Muell. (Asteraceae: Gnaphalieae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (2010). ‘Australia’s Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010–2030.’ (Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population, and Communities: Canberra.)

O’Brien, E. K., Denham, A. J., and Ayre, D. J. (2014). Patterns of genotypic diversity suggest a long history of clonality and population isolation in the Australian arid zone shrub Acacia carneorum. Plant Ecology 215, 55–71.
Patterns of genotypic diversity suggest a long history of clonality and population isolation in the Australian arid zone shrub Acacia carneorum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Offord, C. A., and Meagher, P. F. (Eds) (2009). ‘Plant Germplasm Conservation in Australia: Strategies and Guidelines for Developing, Managing and Utilising Ex Situ Collections.’ (Australian Network for Plant Conservation Inc.: Canberra.)

Pickup, M., Field, D. L., Rowell, D. M., and Young, A. G. (2012). Predicting local adaptation in fragmented plant populations: implications for restoration genetics. Evolutionary Applications 5, 913–924.
Predicting local adaptation in fragmented plant populations: implications for restoration genetics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Prober, S., Byrne, M., McLean, E., Steane, D., Potts, B., Vaillancourt, R., and Stock, W. (2015). Climate-adjusted provenancing: a strategy for climate-resilient ecological restoration. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 3, 1–5.
Climate-adjusted provenancing: a strategy for climate-resilient ecological restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rathcke, B. J., and Jules, E. S. (1993). Habitat fragmentation and plant-pollinator interactions. Current Science 65, 273–277.

Reed, M., Buenemann, M., Atlhopheng, J., Akhtar-Schuster, M., Bachmann, F., Bastin, G. N., Bigas, H., Chanda, R., Dougill, A., Essahli, W., Evely, A., Fleskens, L., Geeson, N., Glass, J., Hessel, R., Holden, J., Ioris, A., Kruger, B., Liniger, H., Mphinyane, W., Nainggolan, D., Perkins, J., Raymond, C., Ritsema, C., Schwilch, G., Sebego, R., Seely, M., Stringer, L., Thomas, R., Twomlow, S., and Verzandvoort, S. (2011). Cross-scale monitoring and assessment of land degradation and sustainable land management: a methodological framework for knowledge management. Land Degradation & Development 22, 261–271.
Cross-scale monitoring and assessment of land degradation and sustainable land management: a methodological framework for knowledge management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Richards, A. J. (1997). ‘Plant Breeding Systems.’ (Chapman & Hall: London.)

Rodger, J. G., and Johnson, S. D. (2013). Self-pollination and inbreeding depression in Acacia dealbata: Can selfing promote invasion in trees? South African Journal of Botany 88, 252–259.
Self-pollination and inbreeding depression in Acacia dealbata: Can selfing promote invasion in trees?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rúa, M. A., Antoninka, A., Antunes, P. M., Chaudhary, V. B., Gehring, C., Lamit, L. J., Piculell, B. J., Bever, J. D., Zabinski, C., Meadow, J. F., Lajeunesse, M. J., Milligan, B. G., Karst, J., and Hoeksema, J. D. (2016). Home-field advantage? Evidence of local adaptation among plants, soil, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi through meta-analysis. BMC Evolutionary Biology 16, 122.
Home-field advantage? Evidence of local adaptation among plants, soil, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi through meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sampson, J. F., Hopper, S. D., and James, S. H. (1988). Genetic diversity and the conservation of Eucalyptus crucis Maiden. Australian Journal of Botany 36, 447–460.
Genetic diversity and the conservation of Eucalyptus crucis Maiden.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sampson, J. F., Byrne, M., Norman, H. C., and Barrett-Lennard, E. (2014). Confirming the genetic affinity of the ‘Eyres Green’ saltbush cultivar as oldman saltbush (Atriplex nummularia Lindl.). Australian Journal of Botany 62, 609–613.
Confirming the genetic affinity of the ‘Eyres Green’ saltbush cultivar as oldman saltbush (Atriplex nummularia Lindl.).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sgrò, C. M., Lowe, A. J., and Hoffmann, A. A. (2011). Building evolutionary resilience for conserving biodiversity under climate change. Evolutionary Applications 4, 326–337.
Building evolutionary resilience for conserving biodiversity under climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Smith, F. P. (2008). Who’s planting what, where and why – and who’s paying? An analysis of farmland revegetation in the central wheatbelt of Western Australia. Landscape and Urban Planning 86, 66–78.
Who’s planting what, where and why – and who’s paying? An analysis of farmland revegetation in the central wheatbelt of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Smith-White, S., Carter, C., and Stace, H. (1970). The cytology of Brachycome. I. The subgenus Eubrachycome: a general survey. Australian Journal of Botany 18, 99–125.
The cytology of Brachycome. I. The subgenus Eubrachycome: a general survey.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Society for Ecological Restoration (2004). ‘The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration.’ (SER International: Tucson, AZ.)

Society for Ecological Restoration (2016). International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration. Available at: www.ser.org/?page=SERStandards (accessed 9 March 2017).

Society for Ecological Restoration Australasia (2016). National Standards for Ecological Restoration. Available at: www.seraustralasia.com/pages/standards.html (accessed 9 March 2017).

Stace, H. (1978). Cytoevolution in the genus Calotis R. Br. (Compositae: Astereae). Australian Journal of Botany 26, 287–307.
Cytoevolution in the genus Calotis R. Br. (Compositae: Astereae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stace, H. M., Armstrong, J. A., and James, S. H. (1993). Cytoevolutionary patterns in Rutaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution 187, 1–28.
Cytoevolutionary patterns in Rutaceae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stace, H. M., Chapman, A. R., Lemson, K. L., and Powell, J. M. (1997). Cytoevolution, phylogeny and taxonomy in Epacridaceae. Annals of Botany 79, 283–290.
Cytoevolution, phylogeny and taxonomy in Epacridaceae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stace, H. M., Douglas, A. W., and Sampson, J. F. (1998). Did ‘paleo-polyploid’ really occur in Proteaceae? Australian Systematic Botany 11, 613–629.
Did ‘paleo-polyploid’ really occur in Proteaceae?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

The Great Eastern Ranges (2017). The Great Eastern Ranges. Available at: www.greateasternranges.org.au/ (accessed 18 August 2017).

Thomas, E., Jalonen, R., Loo, J., Boshier, D., Gallo, L., Cavers, S., Bordács, S., Smith, P., and Bozzano, M. (2014). Genetic considerations in ecosystem restoration using native tree species. Forest Ecology and Management 333, 66–75.
Genetic considerations in ecosystem restoration using native tree species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Timpane-Padgham, B. L., Beechie, T., and Klinger, T. (2017). A systematic review of ecological attributes that confer resilience to climate change in environmental restoration. PLoS One 12, e0173812.
A systematic review of ecological attributes that confer resilience to climate change in environmental restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

United National Environment Program (2016). ‘Loss and Damage: The Role of Ecosystem Services.’ (United Nations Environment Program: Nairobi.)

Vander Mijnsbrugge, K., Bischoff, A., and Smith, B. (2010). A question of origin: where and how to collect seed for ecological restoration. Basic and Applied Ecology 11, 300–311.
A question of origin: where and how to collect seed for ecological restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Vekemans, X., Schierup, M. H., and Christiansen, F. B. (1998). Mate availability and fecundity selection in multi-allelic self-incompatibility systems in plants. Evolution 52, 19–29.

Wallace, M. J., Guja, L. K., Jouault, M. A., Fuller, K. A., Barrett, R. L., Krauss, S. L., and Barrett, M. D. (2017). DNA ploidy variation and distribution in the Lepidosperma costale complex (Cyperaceae): implications for conservation and restoration in a biodiversity hotspot. Australian Journal of Botany 65, 120–127.
DNA ploidy variation and distribution in the Lepidosperma costale complex (Cyperaceae): implications for conservation and restoration in a biodiversity hotspot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2sXls1Sls70%3D&md5=e9efbba80f032828fed15a0e0d212375CAS |

Waters, C., Melville, G., and Grice, A. (2003). Genotypic variation among sites within eleven Australian native grasses. The Rangeland Journal 25, 70–84.
Genotypic variation among sites within eleven Australian native grasses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Waters, C. M., Garden, D. L., Smith, A. B., Friend, D. A., Sanford, P., and Auricht, G. C. (2005). Performance of native and introduced grasses for low-input pastures. 1. Survival and recruitment. The Rangeland Journal 27, 23–39.
Performance of native and introduced grasses for low-input pastures. 1. Survival and recruitment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Waters, C., Young, A., and Crosthwaite, J. (2007). Genetic integrity as a target for natural capital restoration: weighing the costs and benefits. In ‘Restoring Natural Capital: Science, Business and Practice’. (Eds J. Aronson, S. J. Milton and J. N. Blignaut.) pp. 85–93. (Island Press: Washington, DC.)

Waters, C., Dear, B., Hackney, B., Jessop, P., and Melville, G. (2008). Trangie wallaby grass [Austrodanthonia caespitosa (Gaudich.) H.P. Linder]. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, 575–577.
Trangie wallaby grass [Austrodanthonia caespitosa (Gaudich.) H.P. Linder].Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Waters, C., Melville, G., and Jacobs, S. (2009). Association of five Austrodanthonia species with large and small scale environmental features in central western New South Wales. Cunninghamia 11, 61–76.

Waters, C., Murray, B. G., Melville, G., Coates, D., Young, A., and Virgona, J. (2010). Polyploidy and possible implications for the evolutionary history of some Australian Danthonieae. Australian Journal of Botany 58, 23–34.
Polyploidy and possible implications for the evolutionary history of some Australian Danthonieae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Waters, C., Melville, G., Coates, D., Virgona, J., Young, A., and Hacker, R. (2011). Variation in morphological traits among and within populations of Austrodanthonia caespitosa (Gaudich.) HP Linder and four related species. Australian Journal of Botany 59, 324–335.
Variation in morphological traits among and within populations of Austrodanthonia caespitosa (Gaudich.) HP Linder and four related species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Whalley, R. D. B., and Jones, C. E. (1995). Microlaena (Microlaena stipoides). Plant Varieties Journal 8, 27–28.

Whalley, R. D. B., Chivers, I. H., and Waters, C. M. (2013). Revegetation with Australian native grasses – a reassessment of the importance of using local provenances. The Rangeland Journal 35, 155–166.
Revegetation with Australian native grasses – a reassessment of the importance of using local provenances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Williams, J. (2000). Managing the bush: recent research findings from the EA/LWRRDC national remnant vegetation R&D program. In: ‘National Research and Development Program on Rehabilitation, Management and Conservation of Remnant Vegetation’. Research Report 4/00. (Ed. Environment Australia.) (Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation: Canberra.)

Williams, S. G., Marshall, A., and Morgan, J. W. (Eds) (2015). ‘Land of sweeping plains. Managing and restoring the native grasslands of south-eastern Australia.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Witkowski, E. T. F., Lamont, B. B., and Obbens, F. J. (1994). Commercial picking of Banksia hookeriana in the wild reduces subsequent shoot, flower and seed production. Journal of Applied Ecology 31, 508–520.
Commercial picking of Banksia hookeriana in the wild reduces subsequent shoot, flower and seed production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Woods, L. (1983). ‘Land Degradation in Australia.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra.)

Yates, C. J., Elliott, C. P., Byrne, M., Coates, D. J., and Fairman, R. G. (2007a). Seed production, germinability and seedling growth for a bird-pollinated shrub in fragments of kwongan in south-west Australia. Biological Conservation 136, 306–314.
Seed production, germinability and seedling growth for a bird-pollinated shrub in fragments of kwongan in south-west Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Yates, C. J., Ladd, P. G., Coates, D. J., and McArthur, S. (2007b). Hierarchies of cause: understanding rarity in an endemic shrub Verticordia staminosa (Myrtaceae) with a highly restricted distribution. Australian Journal of Botany 55, 194–205.
Hierarchies of cause: understanding rarity in an endemic shrub Verticordia staminosa (Myrtaceae) with a highly restricted distribution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Yeh, F. C., Brune, A., Cheliak, W. M., and Chipman, D. C. (1983). Mating system of Eucalyptus citriodora in a seed-producing area. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 13, 1051–1055.
Mating system of Eucalyptus citriodora in a seed-producing area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Young, A. G., Brown, A. H. D., Murray, B. G., Thrall, P. H., and Miller, C. (2000). Genetic erosion, restricted mating and reduced viability in fragmented populations of the endangered grassland herb Rutidosis leptorrhyncoides. In: ‘Genetics, Demography and Viability of Fragmented Populations’. (Eds A. G. Young and G. M. Clarke.) pp. 335–359. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)