Register      Login
Pacific Conservation Biology Pacific Conservation Biology Society
A journal dedicated to conservation and wildlife management in the Pacific region.
RESEARCH ARTICLE

A diagnostic framework for biodiversity conservation institutions

Sarah Clement A D , Susan A. Moore A , Michael Lockwood B and Tiffany H. Morrison C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Environment and Conservation Sciences, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia.

B Geography and Spatial Sciences, School of Land and Food, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 78, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia.

C ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia.

D Corresponding author. Email: s.clement@murdoch.edu.au

Pacific Conservation Biology 21(4) 277-290 https://doi.org/10.1071/PC15032
Submitted: 4 October 2015  Accepted: 12 October 2015   Published: 1 December 2015

Abstract

Biodiversity loss is a critical issue on the environmental agenda, with species-based approaches failing to stem the decline. Landscape-scale approaches offer promise, but require institutional change. This article describes a novel conceptual framework for assessing institutional arrangements to tackle this persistent problem. In doing so, two critical issues for biodiversity governance are addressed. The first is a need to enrich largely theoretical descriptions of adaptive governance by considering how the practical realities of institutional environments (e.g. public agencies) limit achievement of an adaptive governance ‘ideal’. The second is enabling explicit consideration of the unique aspects of biodiversity as a ‘policy problem’ in the analysis of institutional arrangements. The framework contributes to efforts to design more adaptive institutional arrangements, through supporting a more sophisticated and grounded institutional analysis incorporating insights from institutional theory, especially literature on organisational environments and public administration. Concepts from Pragmatism also contribute to this grounding, providing insight into how public agencies can play a more productive role in biodiversity conservation and building public consent for management actions. The diagnostic categories in the framework include the attributes of the biodiversity problem and the involved players; the political context; and practices contributing to both competence and capacity. Guidance on how to apply the framework and an example of its application in Australia illustrate the utility of this tool for institutional diagnosis and design. Development of this diagnostic framework could be further enhanced by empirically informed elaboration of the relationships between its components, and of the nature of, and factors influencing, key concerns for adaptation, particularly learning, self-organising and buffering.

Additional keywords: adaptation, adaptive governance, institutions, Pragmatism, resilience


References

Annandale, D., Bailey, J., Ouano, E., Evans, W., and King, P. (2001). The potential role of strategic environmental assessment in the activities of multi-lateral development banks. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 21, 407–429.
The potential role of strategic environmental assessment in the activities of multi-lateral development banks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ansell, C. (2011). ‘Pragmatist Democracy: Evolutionary Learning as Public Philosophy.’ (Oxford University Press: New York.)

Ansell, C., and Gash, A. (2008). Collaborative governance in theory and practice. Journal of Public Administration: Research and Theory 18, 543–571.
Collaborative governance in theory and practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Apostolopoulou, E., and Paloniemi, R. (2012). Frames of scale challenges in Finnish and Greek biodiversity conservation. Ecology and Society 17, 9.
Frames of scale challenges in Finnish and Greek biodiversity conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Argote, L., and Miron-Spektor, E. (2011). Organizational learning: from experience to knowledge. Organization Science 22, 1123–1137.
Organizational learning: from experience to knowledge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Armitage, D., and Plummer, R. (2010). ‘Adaptive Capacity and Environmental Governance.’ (Springer: Heidelberg.)

Armitage, D., de Loë, R., and Plummer, R. (2012). Environmental governance and its implications for conservation practice. Conservation Letters 5, 245–255.
Environmental governance and its implications for conservation practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Battilana, J., Leca, B., and Boxenbaum, E. (2009). How actors change institutions: towards a theory of institutional entrepreneurship. The Academy of Management Annals 3, 65–107.
How actors change institutions: towards a theory of institutional entrepreneurship.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Beach, L. R. (2006). ‘Leadership and the Art of Change: A Practical Guide to Organizational Transformation.’ (Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.)

Berman, R., Quinn, C., and Paavola, J. (2012). The role of institutions in the transformation of coping capacity to sustainable adaptive capacity. Environmental Development 2, 86–100.
The role of institutions in the transformation of coping capacity to sustainable adaptive capacity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Black, S. A., Groombridge, J. J., and Jones, C. G. (2011). Leadership and conservation effectiveness: finding a better way to lead. Conservation Letters 4, 329–339.
Leadership and conservation effectiveness: finding a better way to lead.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Boyd, E. (2011). Adapting to global climate change: evaluating resilience in two networked public institutions. In ‘Adapting Institutions: Governance, Complexity and Social–Ecological Resilience’. (Eds E. Boyd and C. Folke.) pp. 240–263. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Boyd, E., and Folke, C. (2011). ‘Adapting Institutions: Governance, Complexity and Social–Ecological Resilience.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Brennan, A. (2004). Biodiversity and agricultural landscapes: can the wicked policy problems be solved? Pacific Conservation Biology 10, 124–142.

Brunner, R. D. (2010). Adaptive governance as a reform strategy. Policy Sciences 43, 301–341.
Adaptive governance as a reform strategy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brunner, R. D., Steelman, T. A., Coe-Juell, L., Cromley, C., Edwards, C., and Tucker, D. (2005). ‘Adaptive Governance: Integrating Science, Policy, and Decision Making.’ (Columbia University Press: New York.)

Butchart, S. H. M., Walpole, M., Collen, B., van Strien, A., Scharlemann, J. P. W., Almond, R. E. A., Baillie, J. E. M., Bomhard, B., Brown, C., Bruno, J., Carpenter, K. E., Carr, G. M., Chanson, J., Chenery, A. M., Csirke, J., Davidson, N. C., Dentener, F., Foster, M., Galli, A., Galloway, J. N., Genovesi, P., Gregory, R. D., Hockings, M., Kapos, V., Lamarque, J.-F., Leverington, F., Loh, J., McGeoch, M. A., McRae, L., Minasyan, A., Morcillo, M. H., Oldfield, T. E. E., Pauly, D., Quader, S., Revenga, C., Sauer, J. R., Skolnik, B., Spear, D., Stanwell-Smith, D., Stuart, S. N., Symes, A., Tierney, M., Tyrrell, T. D., Vié, J.-C., and Watson, R. (2010). Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Science 328, 1164–1168.
Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmsVGjsb0%3D&md5=ded8e01caa296188bae0f77b20aa3558CAS |

Caldwell, R. (2012). Systems thinking, organizational change and agency: a practice theory critique of Senge’s learning organization. Journal of Change Management 12, 145–164.
Systems thinking, organizational change and agency: a practice theory critique of Senge’s learning organization.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chaffin, B. C., Gosnell, H., and Cosens, B. A. (2014). A decade of adaptive governance scholarship: synthesis and future directions. Ecology and Society 19, 56.
A decade of adaptive governance scholarship: synthesis and future directions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chapin, F. S. III, Kofinas, G. P., and Folke, C. (2009). ‘Principles of Ecosystem Stewardship: Resilience-based Natural Resource Management in a Changing World.’ (Springer: New York.)

Christensen, R. K., and Gazley, B. (2008). Capacity for public administration: analysis of meaning and measurement. Public Administration and Development 28, 265–279.
Capacity for public administration: analysis of meaning and measurement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Clark, S. G., Hohl, A. M., Picard, C. H., and Thomas, E. (2015). ‘Large-scale Conservation in the Common Interest.’ (Springer: New York.)

Cleaver, F. (2012). ‘Development Through Bricolage: Rethinking Institutions for Natural Resource Management.’ (Routledge: London.)

Clegg, S. R., Courpasson, D., and Phillips, N. (2006). ‘Power and Organizations.’ (SAGE Publications: London.)

Clement, S. (2012). ‘Biodiversity Governance in the Tasmanian Midlands and Australian Alps: A Preliminary Literature Review.’ (Landscapes and Policy Hub: Hobart.)

Clement, S., Mitchell, M., Lockwood, M., and Moore, S. A. (2015a). ‘Tasmanian Midlands Options to Improve Biodiversity Governance Arrangements.’ (Landscapes and Policy Hub: Hobart.)

Clement, S., Moore, S., Lockwood, M., and Mitchell, M. (2015b). Using insights from pragmatism to develop reforms that strengthen institutional competence for conserving biodiversity. Policy Sciences , 1–27.
Using insights from pragmatism to develop reforms that strengthen institutional competence for conserving biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Clement, S., Moore, S. A., and Lockwood, M. (2015c). Authority, responsibility and process in Australian biodiversity policy. Environmental and Planning Law Journal 32, 93–114.

Clement, S., Moore, S. A., Lockwood, M., and Mitchell, M. (2015d). ‘Understanding and Designing Fit-for-purpose Institutions for Conserving Biodiversity in the Tasmanian Midlands.’ (Landscapes and Policy Hub: Hobart.)

Crawford, S., and Ostrom, E. (2005). A grammar of institutions. In ‘Understanding Institutional Diversity’. pp. 3–31. (Princeton University Press: Princeton.)

Creswell, J. W. (2013). ‘Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches.’ 3rd edn. (SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.)

Cundill, G., Cumming, G. S., Biggs, D., and Fabricius, C. (2012). Soft systems thinking and social learning for adaptive management. Conservation Biology 26, 13–20.
Soft systems thinking and social learning for adaptive management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC383nsV2ruw%3D%3D&md5=26772ecd867e04581ab8d81839dbfd4fCAS | 22010884PubMed |

Dedeurwaerdere, T. (2010). The contribution of network governance in overcoming frame conflicts: enabling social learning and building reflexive abilities in biodiversity governance. In ‘Reflexive Governance. Redefining the Public Interest in a Pluralistic World’. (Eds O. De Schutter and J. Lenoble.) pp. 179–200. (Hart Publishing: Portland.)

Dewey, J. (1927). ‘The Public and its Problems: An Essay in Political Inquiry.’ (Holt: New York.)

Dietz, T., Ostrom, E., and Stern, P. C. (2003). The struggle to govern the commons. Science 302, 1907–1912.
The struggle to govern the commons.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXps1amsLk%3D&md5=3720454125f49720353f78ae607e8f65CAS | 14671286PubMed |

DiMaggio, P. J. (1988). Interest and agency in institutional theory. In ‘Institutional Patterns and Organizations: Culture and Environment’. (Ed. L. Zucker.) pp. 3–21. (Ballinger Pub Co.: Cambridge.)

Dorf, M. C., and Sabel, C. F. (1998). A constitution of democratic experimentalism. Columbia Law Review 98, 267–473.
A constitution of democratic experimentalism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Elmqvist, T., Folke, C., Nyström, M., Peterson, G., Bengtsson, J., Walker, B., and Jon, N. (2003). Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1, 488–494.
Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication 43, 51–58.
Framing: toward clarification of a fractured paradigm.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ferguson, B. C., Brown, R. R., and Deletic, A. (2013). Diagnosing transformative change in urban water systems: theories and frameworks. Global Environmental Change 23, 264–280.
Diagnosing transformative change in urban water systems: theories and frameworks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fitzsimons, J., Pulsford, I., and Wescott, G. (2013). ‘Linking Australia’s landscapes: Lessons and Opportunities from Large-scale Conservation Networks.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Folke, C., Hahn, T., Olsson, P., and Norberg, J. (2005). Adaptive governance of social–ecological systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 30, 441–473.
Adaptive governance of social–ecological systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Freitag, A. (2014). Naming, framing, and blaming: exploring ways of knowing in the deceptively simple question “what is water quality?” Human Ecology 42, 325–337.
Naming, framing, and blaming: exploring ways of knowing in the deceptively simple question “what is water quality?”Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fünfgeld, H., and McEvoy, D. (2014). Frame divergence in climate change adaptation policy: insights from Australian local government planning. Environment and Planning. C, Government & Policy 32, 603–622.
Frame divergence in climate change adaptation policy: insights from Australian local government planning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fung, A. (2004). ‘Empowered Participation: Reinventing Urban Democracy.’ (Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ.)

Galaz, V., Olsson, P., Hahn, T., Folke, C., and Svedin, U. (2008). The problem of fit among biophysical systems, environmental and resource regimes, and broader governance systems: insights and emerging challenges. In ‘Institutions and Environmental Change: Principal Findings, Applications, and Research Frontiers’. (Eds O. Young, L. A. King and H. Schroeder.) pp. 147–182. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.)

Goffman, E. (1974). ‘Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience.’ (Northeastern University Press: Boston.)

Goodin, R. E. (1996). Institutions and their design. In ‘Theories of Institutional Design’. (Ed. R. E. Goodin.) pp. 1–53. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Gordon, R. D. (2009). Power in organizational behaviour. In ‘The SAGE Handbook of Organizational Behavior. Volume II’. (Eds S. Clegg and C. L. Cooper.) pp. 150–161. (SAGE Publications: London.)

Greenwood, R., and Hinings, C. R. (1996). Understanding radical organizational change: bringing together the old and the new institutionalism. Academy of Management Review 21, 1022–1054.

Gupta, J., Termeer, C. J. A. M., Klostermann, J., Meijerink, S., van den Brink, M., Jong, P., Nooteboom, S., and Bergsma, E. (2010). The adaptive capacity wheel: a method to assess the inherent characteristics of institutions to enable the adaptive capacity of society. Environmental Science & Policy 13, 459–471.
The adaptive capacity wheel: a method to assess the inherent characteristics of institutions to enable the adaptive capacity of society.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Head, B. W. (2014). Evidence, uncertainty, and wicked problems in climate change decision making in Australia. Environment and Planning. C, Government & Policy 32, 663–679.
Evidence, uncertainty, and wicked problems in climate change decision making in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hill, R., Halamish, E., Gordon, I. J., and Clark, M. (2013). The maturation of biodiversity as a global social–ecological issue and implications for future biodiversity science and policy. Futures 46, 41–49.
The maturation of biodiversity as a global social–ecological issue and implications for future biodiversity science and policy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hisschemöller, M., and Sioziou, I. (2013). Boundary organisations for resource mobilisation: enhancing citizens’ involvement in the Dutch energy transition. Environmental Politics 22, 792–810.
Boundary organisations for resource mobilisation: enhancing citizens’ involvement in the Dutch energy transition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hooper, D. U., Chapin, F. S., Ewel, J. J., Hector, A., Inchausti, P., Lavorel, S., Lawton, J. H., Lodge, D. M., Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Schmid, B., Setälä, H., Symstad, A. J., Vandermeer, J., and Wardle, D. A. (2005). Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecological Monographs 75, 3–35.
Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Huitema, D., Mostert, E., Egas, W., Moellenkamp, S., Pahl-Wostl, C., and Yalcin, R. (2009). Adaptive water governance: assessing the institutional prescriptions of adaptive (co-)management from a governance perspective and defining a research agenda. Ecology and Society 14, 26.

Hutchcroft, P. D. (2001). Centralization and decentralization in administration and politics: assessing territorial dimensions of authority and power. Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration and Institutions 14, 23–53.
Centralization and decentralization in administration and politics: assessing territorial dimensions of authority and power.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Imperial, M. T. (2005). Using collaboration as a governance strategy: lessons from six watershed management programs. Administration & Society 37, 281–320.
Using collaboration as a governance strategy: lessons from six watershed management programs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Koontz, T. M., Gupta, D., Mudliar, P., and Ranjan, P. (2015). Adaptive institutions in social–ecological systems governance: a synthesis framework. Environmental Science & Policy 53, 139–151.
Adaptive institutions in social–ecological systems governance: a synthesis framework.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lawhon, M., and Patel, Z. (2013). Scalar politics and local sustainability: rethinking governance and justice in an era of political and environmental change. Environment and Planning. C, Government & Policy 31, 1048–1062.
Scalar politics and local sustainability: rethinking governance and justice in an era of political and environmental change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lawrence, T. B., Suddaby, R., and Leca, B. (2009). ‘Institutional Work.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Likens, G. E., and Lindenmayer, D. B. (2012). Integrating approaches leads to more effective conservation of biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation 21, 3323–3341.
Integrating approaches leads to more effective conservation of biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lindenmayer, D. B., and Hobbs, R. J. (2008). ‘Managing and Designing Landscapes for Conservation: Moving from Perspectives to Principles.’ (Blackwell Publishing: Melbourne.)

Lockwood, M. (2010). Good governance for terrestrial protected areas: a framework, principles and performance outcomes. Journal of Environmental Management 91, 754–766.
Good governance for terrestrial protected areas: a framework, principles and performance outcomes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19896262PubMed |

Lukes, S. (1974). ‘Power: A Radical View.’ (Macmillan Education: London.)

Mace, G. M., Norris, K., and Fitter, A. H. (2012). Biodiversity and ecosystem services: a multilayered relationship. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 27, 19–26.
Biodiversity and ecosystem services: a multilayered relationship.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Manning, P. K. (2008). Goffman on organizations. Organization Studies 29, 677–699.
Goffman on organizations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Maris, V., and Béchet, A. (2010). From adaptive management to adjustive management: a pragmatic account of biodiversity values. Conservation Biology 24, 966–973.
From adaptive management to adjustive management: a pragmatic account of biodiversity values.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20151986PubMed |

McGinnis, M. D. (2011a). An introduction to IAD and the language of the Ostrom Workshop: a simple guide to a complex framework. Policy Studies Journal: the Journal of the Policy Studies Organization 39, 169–183.
An introduction to IAD and the language of the Ostrom Workshop: a simple guide to a complex framework.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McGinnis, M. D. (2011b). Networks of adjacent action situations in polycentric governance. Policy Studies Journal: the Journal of the Policy Studies Organization 39, 51–78.
Networks of adjacent action situations in polycentric governance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McGinnis, M. D., and Ostrom, E. (2014). Social–ecological system framework: initial changes and continuing challenges. Ecology and Society 19, 30.
Social–ecological system framework: initial changes and continuing challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Meier, K. J., and O’Toole, L. J. (2008). Management theory and Occam’s razor: how public organizations buffer the environment. Administration & Society 39, 931–958.
Management theory and Occam’s razor: how public organizations buffer the environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Meznar, M. B., and Nigh, D. (1995). Buffer or bridge? Environmental and organizational determinants of public affairs activities in American firms. Academy of Management Journal 38, 975–996.
Buffer or bridge? Environmental and organizational determinants of public affairs activities in American firms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Miles, M. B., and Huberman, A. M. (1994). ‘Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook.’ 2nd edn. (Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.)

Mitchell, M., Lockwood, M., Moore, S. A., and Clement, S. (2015). Using scenario planning to assess governance reforms for enhancing biodiversity outcomes. Land Use Policy , .

Moe, T. M. (2005). Power and political institutions. Perspectives on Politics 3, 215–233.
Power and political institutions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Morgan, G. (2006). ‘Images of organization.’ (Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.)

Nelson, G. C., Bennett, E., Berhe, A. A., Cassman, K., DeFries, R., Dietz, T., Dobermann, A., Dobson, A., Janetos, A., Levy, M., Marco, D., Nakicenovic, N., O’Neill, B., Norgaard, R., Petschel-Held, G., Ojima, D., Pingali, P., Watson, R., and Zurek, M. (2006). Anthropogenic drivers of ecosystem change: an overview. Ecology and Society 11, 29.

Neuman, W. L. (2013). ‘Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.’ 7th edn. (Pearson: Harlow.)

Norton, B. G. (2005). ‘Sustainability: A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management.’ (University of Chicago Press: Chicago.)

O’Toole, L. J., and Meier, K. J. (2011). ‘Public Management: Organizations, Governance, and Performance.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Oberthür, S., and Stokke, O. S. (2011). ‘Managing Institutional Complexity: Regime Interplay and Global Environmental Change.’ (MIT Press: Boston.)

Ojha, H. R., Hall, A., and Rasheed, S. V. (2013). ‘Adaptive Collaborative Approaches in Natural Resource Governance: Rethinking Participation, Learning and Innovation. Earthscan Studies in Natural Resource Management.’ (Routledge: New York.)

Olsson, P., Gunderson, L. H., Carpenter, S. R., Ryan, P., Lebel, L., Folke, C., and Holling, C. S. (2006). Shooting the rapids: navigating transitions to adaptive governance of social–ecological systems. Ecology and Society 11, 18.

Ostrom, E., (2005). Understanding institutional diversity. (Princeton University Press: Princeton.)

Ostrom, E., and Cox, M. (2010). Moving beyond panaceas: a multi-tiered diagnostic approach for social–ecological analysis. Environmental Conservation 37, 451–463.
Moving beyond panaceas: a multi-tiered diagnostic approach for social–ecological analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Paavola, J., Gouldson, A., and Kluvánková-Oravská, T. (2009). Interplay of actors, scales, frameworks and regimes in the governance of biodiversity. Environmental Policy and Governance 19, 148–158.
Interplay of actors, scales, frameworks and regimes in the governance of biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pahl-Wostl, C., Holtz, G., Kastens, B., and Knieper, C. (2010). Analyzing complex water governance regimes: the management and transition framework. Environmental Science & Policy 13, 571–581.
Analyzing complex water governance regimes: the management and transition framework.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pelling, M. (2011). ‘Adaptation to Climate Change: From Resilience to Transformation.’ (Routledge: New York.)

Perrings, C., and Gadgil, M. (2003). Conserving biodiversity: reconciling local and global public benefits. In ‘Providing Global Public Goods: Managing Globalization’. (Eds K. Inge, P. Conceicao, K. Le Goulven and R. U. Mendoza.) pp. 532–555. (Oxford University Press: Oxford.)

Peters, B. G. (2012). ‘Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism.’ 3rd edn. (The Continuum International Publishing Group: London.)

Pimm, S. L., Jenkins, C. N., Abell, R., Brooks, T. M., Gittleman, J. L., Joppa, L. N., Raven, P. H., Roberts, C. M., and Sexton, J. O. (2014). The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection. Science 344, 1246752.
The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC2cjntl2gsw%3D%3D&md5=7d134c02cb3a4ef6dbd98301040b23d3CAS | 24876501PubMed |

Pollock, R. M., Reed, M. G., and Whitelaw, G. S. (2008). Steering governance through regime formation at the landscape scale: evaluating experiences in Canadian biosphere reserves. In ‘Transforming Parks and Protected Areas: Policy and Governance in a Changing World’. (Eds K. S. Hanna, D. A. Clark and D. S. Slocombe.) pp. 110–133. (Routledge: New York.)

Powell, W. W., and DiMaggio, P. J. (1991). ‘The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis.’ (University of Chicago Press: Chicago.)

Primmer, E., and Wolf, S. A. (2009). Empirical accounting of adaptation to environmental change: organizational competencies and biodiversity in Finnish forest management. Ecology and Society 14, 27.

Redford, K. H., Coppolillo, P., Sanderson, E. W., Da Fonseca, G. A. B., Dinerstein, E., Groves, C., Mace, G., Maginnis, S., Mittermeier, R. A., Noss, R. F., Olson, D., Robinson, J. G., Vedder, A., and Wright, M. (2003). Mapping the conservation landscape. Conservation Biology 17, 116–131.
Mapping the conservation landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rerup, C., and Feldman, M. S. (2011). Routines as a source of change in organizational schemata: the role of trial-and-error learning. Academy of Management Journal 54, 577–610.
Routines as a source of change in organizational schemata: the role of trial-and-error learning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rijke, J., Brown, R., Zevenbergen, C., Ashley, R., Farrelly, M., Morison, P., and van Herk, S. (2012). Fit-for-purpose governance: a framework to make adaptive governance operational. Environmental Science & Policy 22, 73–84.
Fit-for-purpose governance: a framework to make adaptive governance operational.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ring, I. (2008). Biodiversity governance: adjusting local costs and global benefits. In ‘Public and Private in Natural Resource Governance. A False Dichotomy?’. (Ed. T. Sikor.) pp. 107–126. (Earthscan: London.)

Ross, H., Buchy, M., and Proctor, W. (2002). Laying down the ladder: a typology of public participation in Australian natural resource management. Australian Journal of Environmental Management 9, 205–217.
Laying down the ladder: a typology of public participation in Australian natural resource management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Schneider, B., Ehrhart, M. G., and Macey, W. H. (2013). Organizational climate and culture. Annual Review of Psychology 64, 361–388.
Organizational climate and culture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22856467PubMed |

Scott, W. R. (2014). ‘Institutions and Organizations: Ideas, Interests, and Identities.’ 4th edn. (Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.)

Sproull, L. S. (2010). Organizational learning. In ‘Stanford’s Organization Theory Renaissance, 1970–2000’. (Eds C. B. Schoonhoven and F. Dobbin.) pp. 59–69. (Emerald Group Publishing: Bingley, UK.)

Steinberg, P. F. (2009). Institutional resilience amid political change: the case of biodiversity conservation. Global Environmental Politics 9, 61–81.
Institutional resilience amid political change: the case of biodiversity conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sternlieb, F., Bixler, R. P., Huber-Stearns, H., and Huayhuaca, C. A. (2013). A question of fit: reflections on boundaries, organizations and social–ecological systems. Journal of Environmental Management 130, 117–125.
A question of fit: reflections on boundaries, organizations and social–ecological systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24076511PubMed |

Termeer, C. J. A. M., and van den Brink, M. A. (2013). Organizational conditions for dealing with the unknown unknown. Public Management Review 15, 43–62.
Organizational conditions for dealing with the unknown unknown.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Termeer, C. J. A. M., Dewulf, A., and van Lieshout, M. (2010). Disentangling scale approaches in governance research: comparing monocentric, multilevel, and adaptive governance. Ecology and Society 15, 29.

Thomas, C. W. (2003). ‘Bureaucratic Landscapes: Interagency Cooperation and the Preservation of Biodiversity.’ (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.)

Turnhout, E., Waterton, C., Neves, K., and Buizer, M. (2013). Rethinking biodiversity: from goods and services to “living with”. Conservation Letters 6, 154–161.
Rethinking biodiversity: from goods and services to “living with”.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Vatn, A., and Vedeld, P. (2012). Fit, interplay, and scale: a diagnosis. Ecology and Society 17, 12.
Fit, interplay, and scale: a diagnosis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Virji, H., Padgham, J., and Seipt, C. (2012). Capacity building to support knowledge systems for resilient development – approaches, actions, and needs. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4, 115–121.
Capacity building to support knowledge systems for resilient development – approaches, actions, and needs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Weible, C., Heikkila, T., deLeon, P., and Sabatier, P. A. (2012). Understanding and influencing the policy process. Policy Sciences 45, 1–21.
Understanding and influencing the policy process.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wijen, F., and Ansari, S. (2007). Overcoming inaction through collective institutional entrepreneurship: insights from regime theory. Organization Studies 28, 1079–1100.
Overcoming inaction through collective institutional entrepreneurship: insights from regime theory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wilshusen, P. R., Brechin, S. R., Fortwangler, C. L., and West, P. C. (2002). Reinventing a square wheel: critique of a resurgent “protection paradigm” in international biodiversity conservation. Society & Natural Resources 15, 17–40.
Reinventing a square wheel: critique of a resurgent “protection paradigm” in international biodiversity conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wittneben, B. B. F., Okereke, C., Banerjee, S. B., and Levy, D. L. (2012). Climate change and the emergence of new organizational landscapes. Organization Studies 33, 1431–1450.
Climate change and the emergence of new organizational landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wondolleck, J. M., and Yaffee, S. L. (2000). ‘Making Collaboration Work: Lessons from Innovation in Natural Resource Managment.’ (Island Press: Washington, DC.)

Wu, J. (2013). Landscape ecology. In ‘Ecological Systems’. (Ed. R. Leemans.) pp. 179–200. (Springer: New York.)

Wyborn, C. (2011). Landscape scale ecological connectivity: Australian survey and rehearsals. Pacific Conservation Biology 17, 121–131.

Wyborn, C. (2015). Cross-scale linkages in connectivity conservation: adaptive governance challenges in spatially distributed networks. Environmental Policy and Governance 25, 1–15.
Cross-scale linkages in connectivity conservation: adaptive governance challenges in spatially distributed networks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wyborn, C., and Bixler, R. P. (2013). Collaboration and nested environmental governance: scale dependency, scale framing, and cross-scale interactions in collaborative conservation. Journal of Environmental Management 123, 58–67.
Collaboration and nested environmental governance: scale dependency, scale framing, and cross-scale interactions in collaborative conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23583866PubMed |

Yin, R. K. (2009). ‘Case Study Research: Design and Methods.’ 5th edn. (Sage publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.)

Young, O. R. (1991). Political leadership and regime formation: on the development of institutions in international society. International Organization 45, 281–308.
Political leadership and regime formation: on the development of institutions in international society.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Young, O. R. (2002). ‘The Institutional Dimensions of Environmental Change: Fit, Interplay and Scale.’ (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.)

Young, O. R. (2008). Building regimes for socioecological systems: institutional diagnostics. In ‘Institutions and Environmental Change: Principal Findings, Applications, and Research Frontiers’. (Eds O. R. Young, L. A. King and H. Schroeder.) pp. 115–144. (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.)

Young, O. R. (2010). Institutional dynamics: resilience, vulnerability and adaptation in environmental and resource regimes. Global Environmental Change 20, 378–385.
Institutional dynamics: resilience, vulnerability and adaptation in environmental and resource regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |