Seasonal diet preferences of chital deer in the northern Queensland dry tropics, Australia
Kurt Watter
A C , Greg Baxter A , Michael Brennan B , Tony Pople B and Peter Murray A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld 4343, Australia.
B Biosecurity Queensland, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Brisbane, Qld 4109, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: watter@bigpond.net.au
The Rangeland Journal 42(3) 211-220 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ20015
Submitted: 4 March 2020 Accepted: 14 July 2020 Published: 31 July 2020
Abstract
Chital deer (Axis axis) were introduced to the Burdekin dry tropics of north Queensland, Australia, in the late 1800s. Here rainfall and plant growth are highly seasonal and a nutritional bottleneck for grazing animals occurs annually before the wet season. This study describes the seasonal changes in diet and diet preference of chital in this seasonally-variable environment. Rumen samples were taken from 162 deer from two sites over the wet and dry seasons of two consecutive years and sorted macroscopically for identification. Relative seasonal availability of plant groups was estimated using step point sampling of areas grazed by chital. Chital alter their diet seasonally according to availability and plant phenology. Chital utilised 42 plant genera including grasses, forbs, subshrubs, shrubs, trees and litter. Grass consumption ranged from 53% of biomass intake during the dry season to 95% during the wet season. The predominance of grass in the wet season diet exceeded relative availability, indicating a strong preference. Although grass contributed more than half of the dry season diet it was the least preferred plant group, given availability, and the least actively growing. Shrubs were the preferred plant type in the dry season, and least subject to seasonal senescence. Composition and quantity of seasonal pastures vary markedly in north Queensland, and chital alter their diet by consuming those plants most actively growing. The increased dry season intake of non-grass forage appears to be a strategy to limit the detriment resulting from the progressive deterioration in the quality of grass.
Additional keywords: Axis axis, diet, forage, grasses, introduced species, seasonality.
References
Albon, S., and Langvatn, R. (1992). Plant phenology and the benefits of migration in a temperate ungulate. Oikos 65, 502–513.| Plant phenology and the benefits of migration in a temperate ungulate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Alipayo, D., Valdez, R., Holechek, J. L., and Cardenas, M. (1992). Evaluation of microhistological analysis for determining ruminant diet botanical composition. Journal of Range Management 45, 148–152.
| Evaluation of microhistological analysis for determining ruminant diet botanical composition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ash, A., O’Reagain, P., Mckeon, G., and Smith, M. S. (2000). Managing climate variability in grazing enterprises: a case study of Dalrymple Shire, North-eastern Australia. In: ‘Applications of Seasonal Climate Forecasting in Agricultural and Natural Ecosystems’. pp. 253–270. (Springer: Dordrecht, Netherlands.)
Bobek, B., Perzanowski, K., and Weiner, J. (1990). Energy expenditure for reproduction in male red deer. Journal of Mammalogy 71, 230–232.
| Energy expenditure for reproduction in male red deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brennan, M., and Pople, A. (2016). Chital Deer – An Expanding Problem in North Queensland. In: ‘2016 Pest Animal Symposium’. Queensland.
Brown, W., and Chapman, N. G. (1990). The dentition of fallow deer (Dama dama): a scoring scheme to assess age from wear of the permanent molariform teeth. Journal of Zoology 221, 659–682.
Bugalho, M., Milne, J., and Racey, P. (2001). The foraging ecology of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in a Mediterranean environment: is a larger body size advantageous? Journal of Zoology 255, 285–289.
| The foraging ecology of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in a Mediterranean environment: is a larger body size advantageous?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burrows, W., Carter, J., Scanlan, J., and Anderson, E. (1990). Management of savannas for livestock production in north-east Australia: contrasts across the tree-grass continuum. Journal of Biogeography 17, 503–512.
| Management of savannas for livestock production in north-east Australia: contrasts across the tree-grass continuum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Congdon, B. C., and Harrison, D.A. (2008). ‘Vertebrate Pests of the Wet Tropics Bioregion: Current Status and Future Trends.’ pp. 322–333. (Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UK.)
Dave, C. V. (2008). Ecology of chital (Axis axis) in Gir. PhD Thesis, Saurashtra University, India.
Davis, N. E., Bennett, A., Forsyth, D. M., Bowman, D. M., Lefroy, E. C., Wood, S. W., Woolnough, A. P., West, P., Hampton, J. O., and Johnson, C. N. (2016). A systematic review of the impacts and management of introduced deer (family Cervidae) in Australia. Wildlife Research 43, 515–532.
| A systematic review of the impacts and management of introduced deer (family Cervidae) in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dinerstein, E. (1979). An ecological survey of the Royal Karnali-Bardia wildlife reserve, Nepal. Part II: Habitat/animal interactions. Biological Conservation 16, 265–300.
| An ecological survey of the Royal Karnali-Bardia wildlife reserve, Nepal. Part II: Habitat/animal interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ditchkoff, S. S., and Servello, F. A. (1998). Litterfall: an overlooked food source for wintering white-tailed deer. The Journal of Wildlife Management 62, 250–255.
| Litterfall: an overlooked food source for wintering white-tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forsyth, D. M., and Davis, N. E. (2011). Diets of non-native deer in Australia estimated by macroscopic versus microhistological rumen analysis. The Journal of Wildlife Management 75, 1488–1497.
| Diets of non-native deer in Australia estimated by macroscopic versus microhistological rumen analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forsyth, D., Richardson, S., and Menchenton, K. (2005). Foliar fibre predicts diet selection by invasive red deer Cervus elaphus scoticus in a temperate New Zealand forest. Functional Ecology 19, 495–504.
| Foliar fibre predicts diet selection by invasive red deer Cervus elaphus scoticus in a temperate New Zealand forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forsyth, D. M., Pople, A., Woodford, L., Brennan, M., Amos, M., Moloney, P. D., Fanson, B., and Story, G. (2019). Landscape-scale effects of homesteads, water, and dingoes on invading chital deer in Australia’s dry tropics. Journal of Mammalogy 100, 1954–1965.
| Landscape-scale effects of homesteads, water, and dingoes on invading chital deer in Australia’s dry tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hamlin, K. L., Pac, D. F., Sime, C. A., DeSimone, R. M., and Dusek, G. L. (2000). Evaluating the accuracy of ages obtained by two methods for Montana ungulates. The Journal of Wildlife Management 64, 441–449.
| Evaluating the accuracy of ages obtained by two methods for Montana ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hanley, T. A. (1982). The nutritional basis for food selection by ungulates. Journal of Range Management 35, 146–151.
Hofmann, R. (1985). Digestive physiology of the deer-their morphophysiological specialisation and adaptation. In: ‘Biology of deer production. Proceedings of an International Conference’. Dunedin, New Zealand, 13–18 February 1983. pp. 393–407.
Hofmann, R. R. (1989). Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system. Oecologia 78, 443–457.
| Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28312172PubMed |
Holecheck, J. L., Vavra, M., and Pieper, R. D. (1982). Methods for determining the nutritive quality of range ruminant diets – a review. Journal of Animal Science 54, 363–376.
| Methods for determining the nutritive quality of range ruminant diets – a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
IPNI (2020). International Plant Names Index. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria and Libraries and Australian National Botanic Gardens. Available at: http://www.ipni.org (accessed 7 June 2020).
Khan, J. (1994). Food habits of ungulates in dry tropical forests of Gir Lion Sanctuary, Gujarat, India. Acta Theriologica 39, 185–193.
| Food habits of ungulates in dry tropical forests of Gir Lion Sanctuary, Gujarat, India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Le Houérou, H. (1980). Chemical composition and nutritive value of browse in tropical West Africa. In: ‘Browse in Africa; The Current State of Knowledge’. (Ed. H. N. Le Houerou.) pp. 261–289. (International Livestock Centre for Africa: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.)
Lechowicz, M. J. (1982). The sampling characteristics of electivity indices. Oecologia 52, 22–30.
| The sampling characteristics of electivity indices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28310104PubMed |
Loehle, C., and Rittenhouse, L. R. (1982). An analysis of forage preference indices diets of cattle, sheep. Rangeland Ecology & Management/Journal of Range Management Archives 35, 316–319.
Manly, B., McDonald, L., Thomas, D. L., McDonald, T. L., and Erickson, W. P. (2007). ‘Resource Selection by Animals: Statistical Design and Analysis for Field Studies,’ 2nd edn. (Springer Science & Business Media: Berlin, Germany.)
McInnis, M. L., Vavra, M., and Krueger, W. C. (1983). A comparison of four methods used to determine the diets of large herbivores. Journal of Range Management 36, 302–306.
| A comparison of four methods used to determine the diets of large herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McIvor, J. (1981). Seasonal changes in the growth, dry matter distribution and herbage quality of three native grasses in northern Queensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 21, 600–609.
| Seasonal changes in the growth, dry matter distribution and herbage quality of three native grasses in northern Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McIvor, J. (2012). Sustainable Management of the Burdekin Grazing Lands – A Technical Guide of Options for Stocking Rate Management, Pasture Spelling, Infrastructure Development and Prescribed Burning to Optimise Animal Production, Profitability, Land Condition and Water Quality Outcomes. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Government of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia. Available at: https://futurebeef.com.au/wp-content/uploads/BurdekinGrazing_final-04a.pdf (accessed 21 July 2020).
McKeon, G., Day, K., Howden, S., Mott, J., Orr, D., Scattini, W., and Weston, E. (1990). Northern Australian savannas: management for pastoral production. Journal of Biogeography 17, 355–372.
| Northern Australian savannas: management for pastoral production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Medin, D. E. (1970). Stomach content analyses: collections from wild herbivores and birds. In: ‘Range and Wildlife Habitat Evaluation – A Research Symposium’. Flagstaff, AZ, USA, May 1968. pp. 133–145. (University of Minnesota: MN, USA.)
Mentis, M. (1981). Evaluation of the wheel‐point and step‐point methods of veld condition assessment. Proceedings of the Annual Congresses of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa 16, 89–94.
| Evaluation of the wheel‐point and step‐point methods of veld condition assessment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mlay, P. S., Pereka, A., Chikula Phiri, E., Balthazary, S., Igusti, J., Hvelplund, T., Riis Weisbjerg, M., and Madsen, J. (2006). Feed value of selected tropical grasses, legumes and concentrates. Veterinarski Arhiv 76, 53–63.
Norbury, G., and Sanson, G. (1992). Problems with measuring diet selection of terrestrial, mammalian herbivores. Australian Journal of Ecology 17, 1–7.
| Problems with measuring diet selection of terrestrial, mammalian herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nugent, G. (1983). ‘Deer Diet Estimation by Rumen or Faecal Analysis: An Evaluation of Available Techniques.’ (Protection Forestry Division, Forest Research Institute: Rotorua, New Zealand.)
Nugent, G., and Challies, C. (1988). Diet and food preferences of white-tailed deer in north-eastern Stewart Island. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 11, 61–71.
O’Reagain, P. J., and Schwartz, J. (1995). Dietary selection and foraging strategies of animals on rangeland. Coping with spatial and temporal variability. In: ‘Recent Developments in the Nutrition of Herbivores’. (Eds M. Journet, E. Grenet, M. H. Farce, M. Theriez and C. Demarquilly.) pp. 407–423. (INRA: Paris.)
O’Reagain, P., Bushell, J., Holloway, C., and Reid, A. (2009). Managing for rainfall variability: effect of grazing strategy on cattle production in a dry tropical savanna. Animal Production Science 49, 85–99.
| Managing for rainfall variability: effect of grazing strategy on cattle production in a dry tropical savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Osborn, R. G., Jenks, J. A., and Jensen, W. F. (1997). Diet of North Dakota elk determined from rumen and fecal analyses. Prairie Naturalist 29, 237–248.
Owen-Smith, N. (1994). Foraging responses of kudus to seasonal changes in food resources: elasticity in constraints. Ecology 75, 1050–1062.
| Foraging responses of kudus to seasonal changes in food resources: elasticity in constraints.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Petrides, G. A. (1975). Principal foods versus preferred foods and their relations to stocking rate and range condition. Biological Conservation 7, 161–169.
| Principal foods versus preferred foods and their relations to stocking rate and range condition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Poppi, D. P., and McLennan, S. R. (1995). Protein and energy utilization by ruminants at pasture. Journal of Animal Science 73, 278–290.
| Protein and energy utilization by ruminants at pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 7601744PubMed |
Prache, S., Gordon, I. J., and Rook, A. J. (1998). Foraging behaviour and diet selection in domestic herbivores. Annales de Zootechnie 47, 335–345.
| Foraging behaviour and diet selection in domestic herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Puglisi, M. J., Liscinsky, S. A., and Harlow, R. F. (1978). An improved methodology of rumen content analysis for white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 42, 397–403.
| An improved methodology of rumen content analysis for white-tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Raman, T. S. (1997). Factors influencing seasonal and monthly changes in the group size of chital or axis deer in southern India. Journal of Biosciences 22, 203–218.
| Factors influencing seasonal and monthly changes in the group size of chital or axis deer in southern India.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roff, C. (1960). Deer in Queensland. Queensland Journal of Agricultural Science 17, 43–58.
Sankar, K., and Acharya, B. (2004). ‘Spotted Deer or Chital (Axis axis Erxleben, 1777).’ pp. 171–180. (Wildlife Institute of India: Dehradun, India.)
Shrader, A., Owen‐Smith, N., and Ogutu, J. (2006). How a mega‐grazer copes with the dry season: food and nutrient intake rates by white rhinoceros in the wild. Functional Ecology 20, 376–384.
| How a mega‐grazer copes with the dry season: food and nutrient intake rates by white rhinoceros in the wild.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Spalinger, D., Hanley, T., and Robbins, C. (1988). Analysis of the functional response in foraging in the Sitka black‐tailed deer. Ecology 69, 1166–1175.
| Analysis of the functional response in foraging in the Sitka black‐tailed deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stone, G., Dalla Pozza, R., Carter, J., and McKeon, G. (2019). Long paddock: climate risk and grazing information for Australian rangelands and grazing communities. The Rangeland Journal 41, 225–232.
| Long paddock: climate risk and grazing information for Australian rangelands and grazing communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ward, A. L. (1970). Stomach content and fecal analysis: methods of forage identification. Range and Wildlife Habitat Evaluation. US Forest Service Miscellaneous Publications 1147, Washington, DC, USA. p. 146.
Waring, G. H. (1996) Preliminary study of the behavior and ecology of axis deer on Maui, Hawaii. Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA. Available at: http://www.hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/waringreports/axisdeer.htm (accessed 20 December 2006).
Watter, K. A. (2020). How nutrition influences the distribution and abundance of chital deer (Axis axis) in northern Queensland. PhD Thesis, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Qld, Australia.
Watter, K., Baxter, G., Brennan, M., Pople, T., and Murray, P. (2019a). Decline in body condition and high drought mortality limit the spread of wild chital deer in north-east Queensland, Australia. The Rangeland Journal 41, 293–299.
| Decline in body condition and high drought mortality limit the spread of wild chital deer in north-east Queensland, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watter, K., Baxter, G. S., Pople, T., and Murray, P. J. (2019b). Effects of wet season mineral nutrition on chital deer distribution in northern Queensland. Wildlife Research 46, 499–508.
| Effects of wet season mineral nutrition on chital deer distribution in northern Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
