Ground-based survey methods both overestimate and underestimate the abundance of suitable tree-cavities for the endangered Swift Parrot
Dejan Stojanovic A D , Matthew Webb A B , David Roshier C , Debra Saunders A and Robert Heinsohn A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
B Threatened Species Section, Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia.
C Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life & Environmental Science, Deakin University, Geelong, Vic. 3220, Australia.
D Corresponding author. Email: dejan.stojanovic@anu.edu.au
Emu 112(4) 350-356 https://doi.org/10.1071/MU11076
Submitted: 29 September 2011 Accepted: 25 June 2012 Published: 24 September 2012
Abstract
Most cavity-dependent species select tree-cavities with a narrow range of characteristics so that only a small subset of available cavities may be suitable for any species. Most surveys for tree-cavities are done from the ground using binoculars to reduce effort, but this technique is prone to error. These errors are likely to contribute to the loss of the cavity resource when used to inform conservation efforts for cavity-dependent species. The Swift Parrot (Lathamus discolor) is an endangered migratory bird threatened by ongoing removal of cavity-bearing trees by production forestry. We climbed trees with cavities used for nesting by Swift Parrots and determined that they prefer cavities with small entrances, deep chambers and wide floors. Such cavities are rare and occur in large trees that support higher than average numbers of tree-cavities. Importantly, cavities used by Swift Parrots were also likely to be both overestimated and underestimated using ground-based surveys, and without calibration by climbing, the size and direction of survey error could not be determined. We conclude that the most effective way to gain detailed information about the characteristics and abundance of tree-cavities is to climb a representative sample of trees to calibrate ground-based methods for a specific ecosystem.
Additional keywords: cavity availability, forestry, nest selection, survey error, tree-hollow.
References
Aitken, K. E. H., and Martin, K. (2007). The importance of excavators in hole-nesting communities: availability and use of natural tree holes in old mixed forests of western Canada. Journal of Ornithology 148, 425–434.| The importance of excavators in hole-nesting communities: availability and use of natural tree holes in old mixed forests of western Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Aitken, K. E. H., and Martin, K. (2008). Resource selection plasticity and community responses to experimental reduction of a critical resource. Ecology 89, 971–980.
| Resource selection plasticity and community responses to experimental reduction of a critical resource.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bai, M. L., Wichmann, F., and Muhlenberg, M. (2003). The abundance of tree holes and their utilization by hole-nesting birds in a primeval boreal forest of Mongolia. Acta Ornithologica 38, 95–102.
BirdLife International. (2012). Lathamus discolor. In ‘IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1’. (International Union for the Conservation of Nature: Gland, Switzerland.) Available at http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/106001488/0 [Verified 5 September 2012].
Boyle, W. A., Ganong, C. N., Clark, D. B., and Hast, M. A. (2008). Density, distribution, and attributes of tree cavities in an old-growth tropical rain forest. Biotropica 40, 241–245.
| Density, distribution, and attributes of tree cavities in an old-growth tropical rain forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brawn, J. D., and Balda, R. P. (1988). Population biology of cavity nesters in northern Arizona: do nest sites limit breeding densities? Condor 90, 61–71.
| Population biology of cavity nesters in northern Arizona: do nest sites limit breeding densities?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brown, P. B. (1989). The Swift Parrot Lathamus discolor (White): a report on its ecology, distribution and status, including management considerations. Prepared for the Australian Heritage Commission. Department of Lands, Parks and Wildlife, Hobart, Tas.
Cameron, M. (2006). Nesting habitat of the Glossy Black-Cockatoo in central New South Wales. Biological Conservation 127, 402–410.
| Nesting habitat of the Glossy Black-Cockatoo in central New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cockle, K., Martin, K., and Wiebe, K. (2008). Availability of cavities for nesting birds in the Atlantic forest, Argentina. Ornitologia Neotropical 19, 269–278.
Cockle, K. L., Martin, K., and Drever, M. C. (2010). Supply of tree-holes limits nest density of cavity-nesting birds in primary and logged subtropical Atlantic forest. Biological Conservation 143, 2851–2857.
| Supply of tree-holes limits nest density of cavity-nesting birds in primary and logged subtropical Atlantic forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cockle, K., Martin, K., and Wiebe, K. (2011). Selection of nest trees by cavity-nesting birds in the neotropical Atlantic Forest. Biotropica 43, 228–236.
| Selection of nest trees by cavity-nesting birds in the neotropical Atlantic Forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cornelius, C., Cockle, K., Politi, N., Berkunsky, I., Sandoval, L., Ojeda, V., Rivera, L., Hunter, M., and Martin, K. (2008). Cavity-nesting birds in Neotropical forests: cavities as a potentially limiting resource. Ornitologia Neotropical 19, 253–268.
Forest Practices Board. (2000). ‘Forest Practices Code.’ (Forest Practices Board: Hobart.)
Gibbons, P., and Lindenmayer, D. B. (2002). ‘Tree Hollows and Wildlife Conservation in Australia.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Gibbons, P., Lindenmayer, D. B., Barry, S. C., and Tanton, M. T. (2002). Hollow selection by vertebrate fauna in forests of southeastern Australia and implications for forest management. Biological Conservation 103, 1–12.
| Hollow selection by vertebrate fauna in forests of southeastern Australia and implications for forest management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gibbons, P., McElhinny, C., and Lindenmayer, D. B. (2010). What strategies are effective for perpetuating structures provided by old trees in harvested forests? A case study on trees with hollows in south-eastern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 260, 975–982.
| What strategies are effective for perpetuating structures provided by old trees in harvested forests? A case study on trees with hollows in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldingay, R. L. (2009). Characteristics of tree hollows used by Australian birds and bats. Wildlife Research 36, 394–409.
| Characteristics of tree hollows used by Australian birds and bats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harper, M. J., McCarthy, M. A., van der Ree, R., and Fox, J. C. (2004). Overcoming bias in ground-based surveys of hollow-bearing trees using double-sampling. Forest Ecology and Management 190, 291–300.
| Overcoming bias in ground-based surveys of hollow-bearing trees using double-sampling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heinsohn, R., Murphy, S., and Legge, S. (2003). Overlap and competition for nest holes among Eclectus Parrots, Palm Cockatoos and Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos. Australian Journal of Zoology 51, 81–94.
| Overlap and competition for nest holes among Eclectus Parrots, Palm Cockatoos and Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heinsohn, R., Zeriga, T., Murphy, S., Igag, P., Legge, S., and Mack, A. L. (2009). Do Palm Cockatoos (Probosciger aterrimus) have long enough lifespans to support their low reproductive success? Emu 109, 183–191.
| Do Palm Cockatoos (Probosciger aterrimus) have long enough lifespans to support their low reproductive success?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Imbeau, L., Mönkkönen, M., and Desrochers, A. (2001). Long-term effects of forestry on birds of the eastern Canadian boreal forests: a comparison with Fennoscandia. Conservation Biology 15, 1151–1162.
| Long-term effects of forestry on birds of the eastern Canadian boreal forests: a comparison with Fennoscandia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Isaac, J. L., De Gabriel, J. L., and Goodman, B. A. (2008). Microclimate of daytime den sites in a tropical possum: implications for the conservation of tropical arboreal marsupials. Animal Conservation 11, 281–287.
| Microclimate of daytime den sites in a tropical possum: implications for the conservation of tropical arboreal marsupials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koch, A. J. (2008). Errors associated with two methods of assessing tree hollow occurrence and abundance in Eucalypts obliqua forest, Tasmania. Forest Ecology and Management 255, 674–685.
| Errors associated with two methods of assessing tree hollow occurrence and abundance in Eucalypts obliqua forest, Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koch, A. J., Munks, S. A., and Woehler, E. J. (2008). Hollow-using vertebrate fauna of Tasmania: distribution, hollow requirements and conservation status. Australian Journal of Zoology 56, 323–349.
| Hollow-using vertebrate fauna of Tasmania: distribution, hollow requirements and conservation status.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lindenmayer, D. B., Cunningham, R. B., Tanton, M. T., and Smith, A. P. (1990). The conservation of arboreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia: II. The loss of trees with hollows and its implications for the conservation of Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy (Marsupialia : Petauridae). Biological Conservation 54, 133–145.
| The conservation of arboreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia: II. The loss of trees with hollows and its implications for the conservation of Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy (Marsupialia : Petauridae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lindenmayer, D. B., Cunningham, R. B., Tanton, M. T., Smith, A. P., and Nix, H. A. (1991). Characteristics of hollow-bearing trees occupied by arboreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the central highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 40, 289–308.
| Characteristics of hollow-bearing trees occupied by arboreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the central highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lindenmayer, D. B., Cunningham, R. B., Pope, M. L., Gibbons, P., and Donnelly, C. F. (2000). Cavity sizes and types in Australian eucalypts from wet and dry forest types – a simple of rule of thumb for estimating size and number of cavities. Forest Ecology and Management 137, 139–150.
| Cavity sizes and types in Australian eucalypts from wet and dry forest types – a simple of rule of thumb for estimating size and number of cavities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Manning, A. D., Lindenmayer, D. B., and Barry, S. C. (2004). The conservation implications of bird reproduction in the agricultural ‘matrix’: a case study of the vulnerable Superb Parrot of south-eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 120, 363–374.
| The conservation implications of bird reproduction in the agricultural ‘matrix’: a case study of the vulnerable Superb Parrot of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Marsden, S. J., and Pilgrim, J. D. (2003). Factors influencing the abundance of parrots and hornbills in pristine and disturbed forests on New Britain, PNG. Ibis 145, 45–53.
| Factors influencing the abundance of parrots and hornbills in pristine and disturbed forests on New Britain, PNG.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Martin, K., Aitken, K. E. H., and Wiebe, K. L. (2004). Nest sites and nest webs for cavity-nesting communities in interior British Columbia, Canada: nest characteristics and niche partitioning. Condor 106, 5–19.
| Nest sites and nest webs for cavity-nesting communities in interior British Columbia, Canada: nest characteristics and niche partitioning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Munks, S. A., Richards, K., Meggs, J. M., and Brereton, R. N. (2004). The importance of adaptive management in ‘off-reserve’ conservation for forest fauna: implementing, monitoring and upgrading Swift Parrot Lathamus discolor conservation measures in Tasmania. In ‘Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna’. 2nd edn (Ed. D. Lunney.) pp. 688–698. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman, Sydney, NSW.)
Murphy, S. A., and Legge, S. M. (2007). The gradual loss and episodic creation of Palm Cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus) nest-trees in a fire and cyclone-prone habitat. Emu 107, 1–6.
| The gradual loss and episodic creation of Palm Cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus) nest-trees in a fire and cyclone-prone habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Newton, I. (1994). The role of nest sites in limiting the numbers of hole-nesting birds: a review. Biological Conservation 70, 265–276.
| The role of nest sites in limiting the numbers of hole-nesting birds: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Politi, N., Hunter, M., and Rivera, L. (2010). Availability of cavities for avian cavity nesters in selectively logged subtropical montane forests of the Andes. Forest Ecology and Management 260, 893–906.
| Availability of cavities for avian cavity nesters in selectively logged subtropical montane forests of the Andes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rayner, L., Ellis, M., and Taylor, J. E. (2011). Double sampling to assess the accuracy of ground-based surveys of tree hollows in eucalypt woodlands. Austral Ecology 36, 252–260.
| Double sampling to assess the accuracy of ground-based surveys of tree hollows in eucalypt woodlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robles, H., Ciudad, C., and Matthysen, E. (2011). Tree-cavity occurrence, cavity occupation and reproductive performance of secondary cavity-nesting birds in oak forests: the role of traditional management practices. Forest Ecology and Management 261, 1428–1435.
| Tree-cavity occurrence, cavity occupation and reproductive performance of secondary cavity-nesting birds in oak forests: the role of traditional management practices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saunders, D. (1979). The availability of tree hollows for use as nest sites by White-tailed Black Cockatoos. Wildlife Research 6, 205–216.
| The availability of tree hollows for use as nest sites by White-tailed Black Cockatoos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saunders, D. A., Smith, G. T., and Rowley, I. (1982). The availability and dimensions of tree hollows that provide nest sites for cockatoos (Psittaciformes) in Western Australia. Australian Wildlife Research 9, 541–556.
| The availability and dimensions of tree hollows that provide nest sites for cockatoos (Psittaciformes) in Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stone, M. (1998). Forest-type mapping by photo interpretation: a multi-purpose base for Tasmania’s forest management. Tasforests 10, 15–32.
Webb, M. H., Holdsworth, M. C., and Webb, J. (2012). Nesting requirements of the endangered Swift Parrot (Lathamus discolor). Emu 112, 181–188.
| Nesting requirements of the endangered Swift Parrot (Lathamus discolor).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wesołowski, T. (2007). Lessons from long-term hole-nester studies in a primeval temperate forest. Journal of Ornithology 148, 395–405.
| Lessons from long-term hole-nester studies in a primeval temperate forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whitford, K. R. (2002). Hollows in Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and Marri (Corymbia calophylla) trees: I. Hollow sizes, tree attributes and ages. Forest Ecology and Management 160, 201–214.
| Hollows in Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and Marri (Corymbia calophylla) trees: I. Hollow sizes, tree attributes and ages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zheng, Z., Zhang, S. B., Yang, G. P., Tang, Y., Baskin, J., Baskin, C., and Yang, L. Y. (2009). Abundance and distribution of cavity trees in an old-growth subtropical montane evergreen broad-leaved forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39, 2234–2245.
| Abundance and distribution of cavity trees in an old-growth subtropical montane evergreen broad-leaved forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |