Emu 108(2) 139-152 https://doi.org/10.1071/MU06024
Submitted: 29 May 2006 Accepted: 16 April 2008 Published: 11 June 2008
Abstract
In parts of Australia where the clearing of native vegetation has been widespread the establishment of windbreaks is a common farming practice. There is some evidence that birds respond to certain characteristics of windbreaks, particularly width. This is the first study to investigate such effects in Australia. Six properties, containing 61 windbreak sites, were surveyed for birds 12 times between 1993 and 1997. Generalised linear models were used to test relationships between 19 predictor variables and bird community attributes, including the densities of 14 species of birds. Canonical variate analysis was undertaken to discriminate among four types of windbreaks and their avifauna. Species known to be declining in the region and uncommon (<100 observations) woodland birds were more abundant in wider and more floristically diverse windbreak sites. Several native species had a positive response to tree-height, density of understorey, structural diversity, the proportion of native plant species in the site or the proximity of remnant bushland. The density of introduced bird species, as a group, was strongly negatively related to the proportion of native plants and, for one species, Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), to width of windbreak. Recommendations for windbreak design are provided and include: using a diversity of native plants; providing adequate width, preferably over 20 m; and having a diversity of understorey densities. It is also recommended that patterns of experimental windbreaks are created that could be used for formal hypothesis testing.
Acknowledgments
We thank the landowners of the properties where the fieldwork was undertaken: the Thompsons (Caringle), the Browns (Tunbridge Wells), the Marshes (Allendale) and the Prattens (Koolawong), and to Professor John Chudleigh (University of Sydney, Orange) and Doug Wheen (Macquarie Woods State Forest). I would like to acknowledge help from my colleagues, in particular Dr David Goldney and the late Liz Greer. The draft has been improved through helpful comments from David Lindenmayer, Geoff Gurr, Rod Kavanagh, and three anonymous reviewers.
References
Arnold, G. W. (1988). The effects of habitat structure and floristics on the densities of bird species in wandoo woodland. Australian Wildlife Research15, 499–510.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Australian Museum (2007). Guidelines for bird habitat. In ‘Birds in Backyards’. (Australian Museum: Sydney.) Available at http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/spaces/guidelines.cfm[Verified 26 July 2007]
Barrett, G. (2001). Ecological management for agricultural sustainability. Trees and Natural Resources43, 16–19.
Bennett A., Kimber S., and Ryan P. (2000). Revegetation and wildlife: a guide to revegetated habitats for wildlife conservation in rural environments. Bushcare – National Projects Research and Development Program Report no. 2/00. Deakin University, Rusden Campus, Vic.
Beutel, T. , Beeton, R. , and Baxter, G. (1999). Building better wildlife-habitat models. Ecography22, 219–223.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boatman N. (1999). Marginal benefits? How field edges and beetle banks contribute to game and wildlife conservation. In ‘Game Conservancy Trust Review 1998’. (Game Conservancy Ltd: Fordingbridge, UK.)
Bond S. (2004). Do woodland birds breed in revegetated sites? B.Sc.(Honours) Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra.
Brandle, J. R. , Hodges, L. , and Zhou, X. H. (2004). Windbreaks in North American agricultural systems. Agroforestry Systems61–62, 65–78.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Buckley P., Ito S., and McLachlan S. (2002). Temperate woodlands. In ‘Handbook of Ecological Restoration’. (Eds M. R. Perrow and A. J. Davy.) pp. 503–538. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)
Cassel J. F., and Wiehe J. M. (1980). Uses of shelterbelts by birds. In ‘Management of Western Forests and Grasslands for Nongame Birds’. (Ed. R. M. De Graaf.) pp. 78–87. General Technical Report INT-86, USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC.
Catterall C. P., Green R. J., and Jones D. N. (1991). Habitat use by birds across a forest-suburb interface in Brisbane: implications for corridors. In ’Nature Conservation 2: the Role of Corridors’. (Eds D. A. Saunders and R. J. Hobbs.) pp. 247–58. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney.)
Cleugh, H. , Prinsley, R. , Bird, P. R. , Brooks, S. J. , Carberry, P. S. , Crawford, M. C. , Jackson, T. T. , Meinke, H. , Mylius, S. J. , Nuberg, I. K. , Sudmeyer, R. A. , and Wright, A. J. (2002). The Australian National Windbreaks Program: overview and summary of results. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture42, 649–664.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fisher A. (2000). On the future for birds in a multi-use landscape. In ‘Nature Conservation 5: Nature Conservation in Production Environments’. (Eds J. L. Craig, N. Mitchell and D. A. Saunders.) pp. 632–32. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney.)
Fisher, A. M. , and Goldney, D. C. (1997). Use of birds of riparian vegetation in an extensively fragmented landscape. Pacific Conservation Biology3, 275–288.
Ford H. A., and Barrett G. (1995). The role of birds and their conservation in agricultural systems. In ‘People and Nature Conservation: Perspectives on Private Land Use and Endangered Species Recovery’. Transactions of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales. (Eds A. Bennett, G. Backhouse and T. Clark.) pp. 128–134. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman, NSW.)
Ford H. A., Lynch J. L., Recher H. F., and Saunders D. A. (1995). The effect of habitat fragmentation and degradation on bird communities in Australian eucalypt woodland. In ‘Functioning and Dynamics of Natural and Perturbed Ecosystems’. (Eds D. Bellan, G. Bonin and C. Emig.) pp. 99–116. (Lavoisier, Intercept Ltd.: Paris, France.)
Ford, H. A. , Barrett, G. W. , Saunders, D. A. , and Recher, H. F. (2001). Why have birds in the woodlands of Southern Australia declined? Biological Conservation97, 71–88.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forman R. T. T. (1995). ‘Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)
Forman R. T. T., and Godron M. (1984). Landscape ecology principles and landscape function. In ‘Proceedings of the First International Seminar of the International Association of Landscape Ecology (IALE)’, 15–19 October 1984, Roskilde, Denmark. (Eds J. Brandt and P. Agger.) pp. 4–15. (Roskilde University Centre Book Company, Roskilde, Denmark.)
Freemark, K. E. , and Merriam, H. G. (1986). Importance of area and habitat heterogeneity to bird assemblages in temperate forest fragments. Biological Conservation36, 115–141.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Green R. J. (1986). Native and exotic birds in the suburban habitat. In ‘The Dynamic Partnership: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia’. (Eds H. A. Ford and D. C. Paton.) pp. 130–139. (The Flora and Fauna of South Australia Handbooks Committee, Adelaide.)
Greening Australia (2001). ‘Bringing Birds Back.’ (Greening Australia: ACT.)
Haas, C. A. (1995). Dispersal and use of corridors by birds in wooded patches on an agricultural landscape. Conservation Biology9, 845–854.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Henle K., and Mühlenberg M. (1996). Area requirement and isolation: conservation concepts and application in Central Europe. In ‘Species Survival in Fragmented Landscapes’. (Eds J. Settele, C. Margules, P. Poschlod and K. Henle) pp. 111-122. (Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht.)
Hill D. A., Andrews J., Sotherton N., and Hawkins J. (1995). Farmland. In ‘Managing Habitats for Conservation’. (Eds W. J. Sutherland and D. A. Hill.) pp. 230–266. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)
Hinsley, S. A. , and Bellamy, P. E. (2000). The influence of hedge structure, management and landscape context on the value of hedgerows to birds: a review. Journal of Environmental Management60, 33–49.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kavanagh R., Law B., Lemckert F., Stanton M., Chidel M., Brassil T., Towerton A., and Herring M. (2005). Biodiversity in eucalypt plantings established to reduce salinity. Report No. 05/165 to the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program: RIRDC/Land and Water Australia, FWPRDC/MDBC: Canberra.
Kentish, B. J. , Dann, P. , and Lowe, K. W. (1995). Breeding biology of the Common Blackbird Turdus merula in Australia. Emu95, 233–244.
Kimber S., Bennett A., and Ryan P. (1999). Revegetation and Wildlife: What Do We Know About Revegetation and Wildlife Conservation in Australia? A report to Environment Australia, School of Ecology and Environment, Deakin University: Rusden Campus, Vic.
Kinross, C. M. (2004). Avian use of farm habitats, including windbreaks, on the New South Wales Tablelands. Pacific Conservation Biology10, 180–192.
Kinross C., Wratten S. D., and Gurr G. M. (2004). Pest management and wildlife conservation: compatible goals for ecological engineering? In ‘Ecological Engineering for Pest Management’. (Eds G. M. Gurr, S. D. Wratten and M. A. Altieri.) pp. 199–218. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Krzanowski W. J. (2000). ‘Principles of Multivariate Analysis.’ (Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK.)
Lakhani K. H. (1994). The importance of field margin attributes to birds. In ‘Proceedings: Field Margins: Integrating Agriculture and Conservation’, 18–20 April 1994, University of Warwick, UK. (Ed. N. Boatman.) BCPC Monograph No. 58. pp. 77–84. (British Crop Protection Council: Farnham, Surrey, UK.)
Lambeck R. J., Cale P., Ive J., and Leone J. (2000). Nature conservation in agricultural landscapes: an integrated planning approach. In ‘Nature Conservation 5: Nature Conservation in Production Environments’. (Eds J. L. Craig, N. Mitchell and D. A. Saunders.) pp. 166–178. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney.)
Lefroy T., and Hobbs R. (2000). Functional mimics of natural ecosystems as a basis for sustainable agriculture. In ‘Nature Conservation 5: Nature Conservation in Production Environments’. (Eds J. L. Craig, N. Mitchell and D. A. Saunders.) pp. 179–187. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney.)
Lindenmayer, D. B. , Manning, A. D. , Smith, P. L. , Possingham, H. P. , Fischer, J. , Oliver, I. , and McCarthy, M. A. (2002). The focal-species approach and landscape restoration: a critique. Conservation Biology16, 338–345.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Loyn R. (2000). Managing the forest matrix: regrowth forests as bird habitat. In ‘Nature Conservation 5: Nature Conservation in Production Environments’. (Eds J. L. Craig, N. Mitchell and D. A. Saunders.) pp. 111–119. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney.)
Ludwig J. A., and Reynolds J. F. (1988). ‘Statistical Ecology: A Primer on Methods and Computing.’ (John Wiley & Sons: New York.)
Mac Nally, R. , and Horrocks, G. (2002). Relative influences of patch, landscape and historical factors on birds in an Australian fragmented landscape. Journal of Biogeography29, 395–410.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Majer J. D., Recher H. F., Graham R., and Watson A. (2001). The potential of revegetation programs to encourage invertebrates and insectivorous birds. Bulletin No. 20, Curtin University of Technology, School of Environmental Biology, Perth, WA.
Martin, T. E. (1981). Limitation in small habitat islands: chance or competition? Auk98, 715–734.
McCullagh P., and Nelder J. A. (1989). ‘Generalized Linear Models.’ (Chapman and Hall: London.)
McGarigal K., Cushman S., and Stafford S. (2000). ‘Multivariate Statistics for Wildlife Ecology Research.’ (Springer-Verlag: New York.)
Nix H. A. (1976). Environmental control of breeding, post-breeding dispersal and migration of birds in the Australian region.
Proceedings of the International Ornithological Congress 16, 272–305.
Nudds, T. D. (1977). Quantifying the vegetative structure of wildlife cover. Wildlife Society Bulletin5, 113–117.
Paton D. C. (1986). Honeyeaters and their plants in south-eastern Australia. In ‘The Dynamic Partnership: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia’. (Eds H. A. Ford and D. C. Paton.) (Flora and Fauna handbooks Committee: Adelaide, SA.)
Quinn G. P., and Keough M. J. (2002). ‘Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)
Reid J. R. W. (1999). Threatened and Declining Birds in the New South Wales Sheep–Wheat Belt: 1. Diagnosis, Characteristics and Management. Report prepared for the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Threatened Species Unit. CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Canberra.
Reid J. R. W. (2000). Threatened and Declining Birds in the New South Wales Sheep-Wheat Belt: II. Landscape Relationships – Modelling Bird Atlas Data against Vegetation Cover. Report prepared for the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Canberra.
Ryan P. A. (1999). The use of revegetated areas by vertebrate fauna in Australia: a review. In ‘Temperate Eucalypt Woodlands in Australia: Biology, Conservation, Management and Restoration’. (Eds R. J. Hobbs and C. J. Yates.) pp. 318–335. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.)
Schwilling M. D. (1982). Nongame wildlife in windbreaks. In ‘Proceedings of the Forestry Committee of the Great Plains Agricultural Council, Vol. 34’. pp. 258–262. Great Plans Agricultural Council, Denver, CO.
Shalaway, S. D. (1985). Fencerow management for nesting birds in Michigan. Wildlife Society Bulletin13, 302–306.
Webb R. (1988). The status of hedgerow field margins in Ireland. In ‘Environmental Management in Agriculture: European Perspectives’. (Ed. J. R. Park.) pp. 125–131. (Belhaven Press: London.)
Williams, B. K. , and Titus, K. (1988). Assessment of sampling stability in ecological applications of discriminant analysis. Ecology69(4), 1275–1285.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
With, K. A. , and Crist, T. O. (1995). Critical thresholds in species’ responses to landscape structure. Ecology76, 2446–2459.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Appendix 1. Species used to form the woodland and declining species categories References: 1, Reid (1999), identified as declining in the NSW Sheep–Wheat Belt (immediately to the west of the Central Tablelands; 2, Fisher (2000), identified as declining in the Bathurst Landscape; 3, Barrett (1994), identified as declining and woodland species on the Armidale Plateau; 4, Bennett and Ford (1997), identified as woodland species; 5, Reid (2000), identified as declining and woodland species; V, listed as Vulnerable under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW)
