Exploring changes in water use patterns, demand and stress along the Nile River Basin through the lens of Kenya and Egypt
Anne Wambui Mumbi![https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8651-9513](/media/client/orcid_16x16.png)
![https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3463-1110](/media/client/orcid_16x16.png)
A College of Environmental Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse Study, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai, 200092, PR China.
B Corresponding author. Email: fengting@tongji.edu.cn
Marine and Freshwater Research 71(11) 1478-1487 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF19396
Submitted: 27 December 2019 Accepted: 29 February 2020 Published: 27 March 2020
Journal Compilation © CSIRO 2020 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Noting the geopolitical implications of water demand and stress issues on water resources worldwide, this study investigated water demand, changes in water use patterns and water stress developments in the Nile Basin transboundary water resource by comparing Egypt and Kenya. Using an integrative literature review, the study summarises past research, drawing overall conclusions and highlighting unresolved issues. The findings demonstrate increased water withdrawals and a growing unmet demand in both countries. In addition to changing water use patterns towards municipal and industrial use, hydropower development in Kenya and navigation in Egypt are being driven by factors such as heightened upstream use, population growth and settlement patterns, economic development and climate change. In addition, spatial distribution of water stress was demonstrated, whereby downstream countries such as Egypt remain critically vulnerable, although upper riparian countries such as Kenya are gradually also facing emerging water stress problems. This water stress and its spatial distribution are being driven by supply–demand imbalances related to population growth and economic development, escalating upstream water use, deteriorating water quality, inefficient and ineffective water use and climate change. The findings inform a discussion of the crucial socioeconomic, geopolitical and policy implications for riparian countries in the Nile Basin and other transboundary water resources worldwide.
Additional keywords: policies, transboundary resources water demand, water stress.
References
Abdulrahman, S. A. (2019). The River Nile and Ethiopia’s grand renaissance dam: challenges to Egypt’s security approach. The International Journal of Environmental Studies 76, 136–149.| The River Nile and Ethiopia’s grand renaissance dam: challenges to Egypt’s security approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Adar, K. G. (2011). Kenya’s foreign-policy and geopolitical interests: the case of the Nile River Basin. African Sociological Review 11, 63–80.
Allam, M. M., and Eltahir, E. A. B. (2019). Water–energy–food nexus sustainability in the Upper Blue Nile (UBN) Basin. Frontiers in Environmental Science 7, 5.
| Water–energy–food nexus sustainability in the Upper Blue Nile (UBN) Basin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Appelgren, B., Klohn, W., and Alam, U. (2000). Water and agriculture in the Nile Basin. Nile Basin Initiative report to ICCON. Background paper prepared by FAO. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy.) Available at http://www.fao.org/tempref/agl/AGLW/docs/misc29.pdf [Verified 7 March 2020].
Blum, A. G., Zaitchik, B., Alexander, S., Wu, S., Zhang, Y., Shukla, S., and Block, P. (2019). A grand prediction: communicating and evaluating 2018 summertime Upper Blue Nile rainfall and streamflow forecasts in preparation for Ethiopia’s new dam. Frontiers in Water 1, 3.
| A grand prediction: communicating and evaluating 2018 summertime Upper Blue Nile rainfall and streamflow forecasts in preparation for Ethiopia’s new dam.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Degefu, D. M., and He, W. (2016). Water bankruptcy in the mighty Nile River Basin. Sustainable Water Resources Management 2, 29–37.
| Water bankruptcy in the mighty Nile River Basin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Di Baldassarre, G., Elshamy, M., van Griensven, A., Soliman, E., Kigobe, M., Ndomba, P., and Solomatine, D. (2011). Future hydrology and climate in the River Nile Basin: a review. Hydrological Sciences Journal 56, 199–211.
| Future hydrology and climate in the River Nile Basin: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dile, Y. T., Tekleab, S., Ayana, E. K., Gebrehiwot, S. G., Worqlul, A. W., Bayabil, H. K., and Srinivasan, R. (2018). Advances in water resources research in the Upper Blue Nile Basin and the way forward: a review. Journal of Hydrology 560, 407–423.
| Advances in water resources research in the Upper Blue Nile Basin and the way forward: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Evans, D., and Kowanko, I. (2000). Literature reviews: evolution of a research methodology. The Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing 18, 33–38.
| 11878498PubMed |
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2011). Information products for Nile Basin water resources management: synthesis report. FAO–Nile Basin Project, GCP/INT/945/ITA, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Guion, L. A., Diehl, D. C., and McDonald, D. (2011). ‘Triangulation: Establishing the Validity of Qualitative Studies.’ (University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, EDIS: Gainesville, FL, USA.)
Hamza, W., and Mason, S. (2005). Water availability and food security challenges in Egypt. In ‘Food Security Under Water Scarcity in the Middle East: Problems and Solutions’. (Eds A. Hamdy and R. Monti.) Options Méditerranéennes: Série A, Séminaires Méditerranéens 65, pp. 249–259. (Centre International de Hautes Études Agronomiques Mediterranéennes, CIHEAM: Bari, Italy.)
Hawker, S., Payne, S., Kerr, C., Hardey, M., and Powell, J. (2002). Appraising the evidence: reviewing disparate data systematically. Qualitative Health Research 12, 1284–1299.
| Appraising the evidence: reviewing disparate data systematically.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 12448672PubMed |
Kagwanja, P. (2007). Calming the waters: the East African community and conflict over the Nile resources. Journal of Eastern African Studies: the Journal of the British Institute in Eastern Africa 1, 321–337.
| Calming the waters: the East African community and conflict over the Nile resources.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keith, B., Enos, J., Garlick, C. B., Simmons, G., Copeland, D., and Cortizo, M. (2013). Limits to population growth and water resource adequacy in the Nile River Basin, 1994–2100. In ‘Proceedings of the 31st International Conference of the System Dynamics Society’, 21–25 July 2013, Cambridge, MA, USA. pp. 21–25. (Environmental Laboratory, Engineer Research and Development Center: Vicksburg, MS, USA.)
Mekonnen, M. M., and Hoekstra, A. Y. (2014). Water conservation through trade: the case of Kenya. Water International 39, 451–468.
| Water conservation through trade: the case of Kenya.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Neir, A. M., and Campana, M. E. (2007). The peaceful resolution of US–Mexican transboundary water disputes. The Economics of Peace and Security Journal 2, 42–48.
| The peaceful resolution of US–Mexican transboundary water disputes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nile Basin Initiative (2012). Chapter 2. The water resources of the Nile Basin. In ‘State of the River Nile Basin 2012’. Available at http://nileis.nilebasin.org/system/files/Nile%20SoB%20Report%20Chpater%202%20-%20Water%20resources.pdf [Verified 7 March 2020].
Nile Basin Initiative (2017). Irrigation in the Nile Basin: water withdrawal for irrigation in the Nile Basin. Available at http://atlas.nilebasin.org/treatise/water-withdrawal-for-irrigation-in-the-nile-basin/ [Verified 7 March 2020].
Patel, S. (2013). Wastewater management: Kenyan policy perspective and business perspective. In ‘3rd Annual Effluent and Water Management Conference’, 5–6 December 2013, Nairobi, Kenya. Available at https://www.aidembs.com/effluent_conference/images/presentations13/Session-6/Suresh_Patel.pdf [Verified 9 March 2020].
Ravnborg, H. M. (Ed.) (2004). Water and conflict. Conflict prevention and mitigation in water resources management. DIIS Report 2004:2, Danish Institute of International Studies, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Richards, N., and Syallow, D. (2018). Water resources users associations in the Mara Basin, Kenya: pitfalls and opportunities for community based natural resources management. Frontiers in Environmental Science 6, 138.
| Water resources users associations in the Mara Basin, Kenya: pitfalls and opportunities for community based natural resources management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information 22, 63–75.
| Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Swain, A. (2011). Challenges for water sharing in the Nile Basin: changing geo-politics and changing climate. Hydrological Sciences Journal 56, 687–702.
| Challenges for water sharing in the Nile Basin: changing geo-politics and changing climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
United Nations Development Program (2006). ‘Human Development Report 2006. Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis.’ (Palgrave Macmillan: New York, NY, USA.)
United Nations Environment Program (2013a). Adaptation to climate changes induced water stress in the Nile Basin. A vulnerability assessment report. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.
United Nations Environment Program (2013b). Nile Basin adaptation to water stress. Comprehensive assessment of flood & drought prone areas. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.
United Nations Water (2008). Transboundary waters sharing benefits, sharing responsibilities. Available at https://www.unwater.org/publications/transboundary-waters-sharing-benefits-sharing-responsibilities/ [Verified 8 March 2020].
Wada, Y., Van Beek, L. P. H., Viviroli, D., Dürr, H. H., Weingartner, R., and Bierkens, M. F. (2011). Global monthly water stress: 2. Water demand and severity of water stress. Water Resources Research 47, 1–17.
| Global monthly water stress: 2. Water demand and severity of water stress.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |