Carcass use by mesoscavengers drives seasonal shifts in Australian alpine scavenging dynamics
James Vandersteen
A * , Christopher Fust A , Mathew S. Crowther A , Matt Smith B , Benjamin Viola C , Philip Barton D and Thomas M. Newsome A *
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
B School of Biological, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
C Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Battery Point, Tas. 7004, Australia.
D Future Regions Research Centre, Federation University, Ballarat, Vic. 3353, Australia.
* Correspondence to: james.vandersteen@outlook.com, thomas.newsome@sydney.edu.au
Handling Editor: Catarina Campos Ferreira
Wildlife Research 50(12) 1031-1045 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR22100
Submitted: 12 June 2022 Accepted: 18 January 2023 Published: 9 February 2023
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
Context: Carrion is a high-energy and nutrient-rich resource that attracts a diverse group of vertebrate scavengers. However, despite the carrion pool being highly seasonal in its availability, there is little understanding of how scavengers utilise carcasses across all four seasons.
Aim: To assess how season influences carcass-detection times by vertebrate scavengers and their rates of scavenging.
Methods: We used remote cameras to monitor vertebrate scavenging at 15 eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) carcasses in four consecutive seasons (summer, autumn, winter, and spring; total 58 carcasses) in the Australian Alps.
Key results: In total, 745 599 remote-camera images were captured, within which 34 vertebrate species were identified, nine of which were recorded to actively scavenge. Time to first detection of carcasses by vertebrate scavengers was 5.3 and 9.6 times longer during summer (average 144 h) than during spring (average 34 h) and winter (average 24 h) respectively. Rates of vertebrate scavenging were highest in winter and spring, with brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) accounting for 78% of all scavenging events during winter, and ravens (Corvus spp.) accounting for 73% during spring. High rates of carcass use by these mesoscavengers may reflect a scarcity of other food sources, the demands of their breeding season, or a relative absence of scavenging by larger dominant species such as dingoes (Canis dingo) and wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax).
Conclusions: These findings demonstrate the highly seasonal nature of vertebrate scavenging dynamics in an alpine ecosystem, and that mesoscavengers, not apex scavengers, can dominate the use of carcasses.
Implications: Accounting for the effects of season is integral to understanding the way animals utilise carcasses in alpine and other strongly seasonal environments; and for developing further our knowledge of ecosystem processes linked to decomposition.
Keywords: alps, apex scavenger, breeding, brushtail possum, carrion, food source, mesoscavenger, raven, scavenger guild.
References
Allen, ML, Elbroch, LM, Wilmers, CC, and Wittmer, HU (2014). Trophic facilitation or limitation? Comparative effects of pumas and black bears on the scavenger community. PLoS ONE 9, .| Trophic facilitation or limitation? Comparative effects of pumas and black bears on the scavenger community.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anderson GS, Barton PS, Archer M, Wallace JR (2019) Invertebrate scavenging communities. In ‘Carrion ecology and management’. (Eds PP Olea, P Mateo-Tomás, JA Sánchez-Zapata) pp. 45–69. (Springer: Cham, Switzerland)
Bartoń K (2022) MuMIn: Multi-Model Inference. R package version 1.47.1. Available at https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=MuMIn
Barton PS, Bump JK (2019) Carrion decomposition. In ‘Carrion ecology and management’. (Eds PP Olea, P Mateo-Tomás, JA Sánchez-Zapata) pp. 101–124. (Springer: Cham, Switzerland)
Barton, PS, and Evans, MJ (2017). Insect biodiversity meets ecosystem function: differential effects of habitat and insects on carrion decomposition. Ecological Entomology 42, 364–374.
| Insect biodiversity meets ecosystem function: differential effects of habitat and insects on carrion decomposition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barton, PS, Cunningham, SA, Lindenmayer, DB, and Manning, AD (2013). The role of carrion in maintaining biodiversity and ecological processes in terrestrial ecosystems. Oecologia 171, 761–772.
| The role of carrion in maintaining biodiversity and ecological processes in terrestrial ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barton, PS, Evans, MJ, Foster, CN, Pechal, JL, Bump, JK, Quaggiotto, M-M, and Benbow, ME (2019). Towards quantifying carrion biomass in ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 34, 950–961.
| Towards quantifying carrion biomass in ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bates, D, Mächler, M, Bolker, B, and Walker, S (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software 67, 1–48.
| Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bear, R, Hill, W, and Pickering, CM (2006). Distribution and diversity of exotic plant species in montane to alpine areas of Kosciuszko National Park. Cunninghamia 9, 559–570.
Beasley JC, Olson ZH, Selva N, DeVault TL (2019) Ecological functions of vertebrate scavenging. In ‘Carrion ecology and management’. (Eds PP Olea, P Mateo-Tomás, JA Sánchez-Zapata) pp. 125–157. (Springer: Cham, Switzerland)
Bingham, EL, Gilby, BL, Olds, AD, Weston, MA, Connolly, RM, Henderson, CJ, Maslo, B, Peterson, CF, Voss, CM, and Schlacher, TA (2018). Functional plasticity in vertebrate scavenger assemblages in the presence of introduced competitors. Oecologia 188, 583–593.
| Functional plasticity in vertebrate scavenger assemblages in the presence of introduced competitors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bivand RS, Pebesma E, Gomez-Rubio V (2013) ‘Applied spatial data analysis with R, second edition’ (Springer: NY, USA)
Boyce, MS (1979). Seasonality and patterns of natural selection for life histories. The American Naturalist 114, 569–583.
| Seasonality and patterns of natural selection for life histories.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bragato, PJ, Spencer, EE, Dickman, CR, Crowther, MS, Tulloch, A, and Newsome, TM (2022). Effects of habitat, season and flood on corvid scavenging dynamics in Central Australia. Austral Ecology 47, 939–953.
| Effects of habitat, season and flood on corvid scavenging dynamics in Central Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brook, LA, and Kutt, AS (2011). The diet of the dingo (Canis lupus dingo) in north-eastern Australia with comments on its conservation implications. The Rangeland Journal 33, 79–85.
| The diet of the dingo (Canis lupus dingo) in north-eastern Australia with comments on its conservation implications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brooks, ME, Kristensen, K, van Benthem, KJ, Magnusson, A, Berg, CW, Nielsen, A, Skaug, HJ, Mächler, M, and Bolker, BM (2017). glmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling. The R Journal 9, 378–400.
| glmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brown, K, Innes, J, and Shorten, R (1993). Evidence that possums prey on and scavenge birds’ eggs, birds and mammals. Notornis 40, 169–177.
Cammack JA, Pimsler ML, Crippen TL, Tomberlin JK (2015) Chemical ecology of vertebrate carrion. In ‘Carrion ecology, evolution, and their applications’. (Eds ME Benbow, JK Tomberlin, AM Tarone) pp. 187–212. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
Camphuysen, CJ (1995). Herring gull Larus argentatus and lesser black-backed gull L. Fuscus feeding at fishing vessels in the breeding season: competitive scavenging versus efficient flying. ARDEA-WAGENINGEN 83, 365–380.
Carter, DO, Yellowlees, D, and Tibbett, M (2007). Cadaver decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems. Naturwissenschaften 94, 12–24.
| Cadaver decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Caughley, G, Grigg, GC, and Smith, L (1985). The effect of drought on kangaroo populations. The Journal of Wildlife Management 49, 679–685.
| The effect of drought on kangaroo populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clutton-Brock, TH, Illius, AW, Wilson, K, Grenfell, BT, MacColl, ADC, and Albon, SD (1997). Stability and instability in ungulate populations: an empirical analysis. The American Naturalist 149, 195–219.
| Stability and instability in ungulate populations: an empirical analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cochrane, CH, Norton, DA, Miller, CJ, and Allen, RB (2003). Brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) diet in a north westland mixed-beech (Nothofagus) forest. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 27, 61–65.
Coppola, F, Guerrieri, D, Simoncini, A, Varuzza, P, Vecchio, G, and Felicioli, A (2020). Evidence of scavenging behaviour in crested porcupine. Scientific Reports 10, .
| Evidence of scavenging behaviour in crested porcupine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cortés-Avizanda, A, Jovani, R, Donázar, JA, and Grimm, V (2014). Bird sky networks: how do avian scavengers use social information to find carrion? Ecology 95, 1799–1808.
| Bird sky networks: how do avian scavengers use social information to find carrion?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Crippen TL, Benbow ME, Pechal JL (2015) Microbial interactions during carrion decomposition. In ‘Carrion ecology, evolution, and their applications’. (Eds ME Benbow, JK Tomberlin, AM Tarone) pp. 31–64. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
Cunningham, CX, Johnson, CN, Barmuta, LA, Hollings, T, Woehler, EJ, and Jones, ME (2018). Top carnivore decline has cascading effects on scavengers and carrion persistence. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, .
| Top carnivore decline has cascading effects on scavengers and carrion persistence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
DeVault, TL, Rhodes, J, Olin, E, and Shivik, JA (2003). Scavenging by vertebrates: behavioral, ecological, and evolutionary perspectives on an important energy transfer pathway in terrestrial ecosystems. Oikos 102, 225–234.
| Scavenging by vertebrates: behavioral, ecological, and evolutionary perspectives on an important energy transfer pathway in terrestrial ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dickman CR (1996) ‘Overview of the impacts of feral cats on Australian native fauna’ (Australian Nature Conservation Agency: Canberra, ACT, Australia)
Dormann, CF, McPherson, JM, Araújo, MB, Bivand, R, Bolliger, J, Carl, G, Davies, RG, Hirzel, A, Jetz, W, Daniel Kissling, W, Kühn, I, Ohlemüller, R, Peres-Neto, PR, Reineking, B, Schröder, B, Schurr, FM, and Wilson, R (2007). Methods to account for spatial autocorrelation in the analysis of species distributional data: a review. Ecography 30, 609–628.
| Methods to account for spatial autocorrelation in the analysis of species distributional data: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dudley, JP, Criag, GC, Gibson, DSC, Haynes, G, and Klimowicz, J (2003). Drought mortality of bush elephants in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 39, 187–194.
| Drought mortality of bush elephants in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ekanayake, KB, Whisson, DA, Schlacher, TA, and Weston, MA (2018). Urban corvids on the move: habitat use and movement ecology of the little raven Corvus mellori at a peri-urban wetland. Corella 42, 29–37.
Enari, H, and Enari, HS (2021). Not avian but mammalian scavengers efficiently consume carcasses under heavy snowfall conditions: a case from northern Japan. Mammalian Biology 101, 419–428.
| Not avian but mammalian scavengers efficiently consume carcasses under heavy snowfall conditions: a case from northern Japan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Evans, MC (1992). Diet of the Brushtail Possum Trichosurus vulpecula (Marsupialia: Phalangeridae) in central Australia. Australian Mammalogy 15, 25–30.
| Diet of the Brushtail Possum Trichosurus vulpecula (Marsupialia: Phalangeridae) in central Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Evans, MJ, Wallman, JF, and Barton, PS (2020). Traits reveal ecological strategies driving carrion insect community assembly. Ecological Entomology 45, 966–977.
| Traits reveal ecological strategies driving carrion insect community assembly.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fielding, MW, Buettel, JC, Brook, BW, Stojanovic, D, and Yates, LA (2021). Roadkill islands: carnivore extinction shifts seasonal use of roadside carrion by generalist avian scavenger. Journal of Animal Ecology 90, 2268–2276.
| Roadkill islands: carnivore extinction shifts seasonal use of roadside carrion by generalist avian scavenger.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fielding, MW, Cunningham, CX, Buettel, JC, Stojanovic, D, Yates, LA, Jones, ME, and Brook, BW (2022). Dominant carnivore loss benefits native avian and invasive mammalian scavengers. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 289, .
| Dominant carnivore loss benefits native avian and invasive mammalian scavengers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fleming, PA, Crawford, HM, Stobo-Wilson, AM, Dawson, SJ, Dickman, CR, Dundas, SJ, Gentle, MN, Newsome, TM, O’Connor, J, Palmer, R, Riley, J, Ritchie, EG, Speed, J, Saunders, G, Stuart, J-MD, Thompson, E, Turpin, JM, and Woinarski, JCZ (2021). Diet of the introduced red fox Vulpes vulpes in Australia: analysis of temporal and spatial patterns. Mammal Review 51, 508–527.
| Diet of the introduced red fox Vulpes vulpes in Australia: analysis of temporal and spatial patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flint, PL, Lance, EW, Sowl, KM, and Donnelly, TF (2010). Estimating carcass persistence and scavenging bias in a human-influenced landscape in western Alaska. Journal of Field Ornithology 81, 206–214.
| Estimating carcass persistence and scavenging bias in a human-influenced landscape in western Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forbes SL, Carter DO (2015) Processes and mechanisms of death and decomposition of vertebrate carrion. In ‘Carrion ecology, evolution, and their applications’. (Eds ME Benbow, JK Tomberlin, AM Tarone) pp. 13–30. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
Forsyth, DM, Woodford, L, Moloney, PD, Hampton, JO, Woolnough, AP, and Tucker, M (2014). How does a carnivore guild utilise a substantial but unpredictable anthropogenic food source? Scavenging on hunter-shot ungulate carcasses by wild dogs/dingoes, red foxes and feral cats in south-eastern australia revealed by camera traps. PLoS ONE 9, .
| How does a carnivore guild utilise a substantial but unpredictable anthropogenic food source? Scavenging on hunter-shot ungulate carcasses by wild dogs/dingoes, red foxes and feral cats in south-eastern australia revealed by camera traps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grilli, MG, Bildstein, KL, and Lambertucci, SA (2019). Nature’s clean-up crew: quantifying ecosystem services offered by a migratory avian scavenger on a continental scale. Ecosystem Services 39, .
| Nature’s clean-up crew: quantifying ecosystem services offered by a migratory avian scavenger on a continental scale.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Handler, KS, Subalusky, AL, Kendall, CJ, Dutton, CL, Rosi, EJ, and Post, DM (2021). Temporal resource partitioning of wildebeest carcasses by scavengers after riverine mass mortality events. Ecosphere 12, .
| Temporal resource partitioning of wildebeest carcasses by scavengers after riverine mass mortality events.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hartig F, Hartig MF (2017) ‘Package ‘dharma’.’ (R Development Core Team: Vienna, Austria)
Heinsohn, TE, and Barker, R (2006). Observations of scavenging carnivory by the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula on macropod carcasses in Namadgi National Park, montane Southeastern Australia. Australian Zoologist 33, 295–305.
| Observations of scavenging carnivory by the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula on macropod carcasses in Namadgi National Park, montane Southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hopcraft JGC, Holdo RM, Mwangomo E, Mduma SAR, Thirgood SJ, Borner M, Fryxell JM, Olff H, Sinclair ARE (2015) Why are wildebeest the most abundant herbivore in the serengeti ecosystem? In ‘Serengeti IV: sustaining biodiverstiy in a coupled human-natural system’. (Eds ARE Sinclair, KL Metzger, SAR Mduma, JM Fryxell) pp. 125–174. (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA)
How, RA, and Hillcox, SJ (2000). Brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, populations in south-western Australia: demography, diet and conservation status. Wildlife Research 27, 81–89.
| Brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, populations in south-western Australia: demography, diet and conservation status.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Inagaki, A, Allen, ML, Maruyama, T, Yamazaki, K, Tochigi, K, Naganuma, T, and Koike, S (2020). Vertebrate scavenger guild composition and utilization of carrion in an East Asian temperate forest. Ecology and Evolution 10, 1223–1232.
| Vertebrate scavenger guild composition and utilization of carrion in an East Asian temperate forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jedrzejewska B, Jedrzejewski W (1998) ‘Predation in vertebrate communities: the bialowieza primeval forest as a case study.’ (Springer Science & Business Media: Heidelberg, Germany)
Jones, E, and Coman, BJ (1981). Ecology of the feral cat, Felis catus (L.), in south-eastern Australia I. Diet. Wildlife Research 8, 537–547.
| Ecology of the feral cat, Felis catus (L.), in south-eastern Australia I. Diet.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jones SC, Strauss ED, Holekamp KE (2015) Ecology of African carrion. In ‘Carrion ecology, evolution, and their applications’. (Eds ME Benbow, JK Tomberlin, AM Tarone) pp. 461–491. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
King, NJ, Bagley, PM, and Priede, IG (2006). Depth zonation and latitudinal distribution of deep-sea scavenging demersal fishes of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 42 to 53°N. Marine Ecology Progress Series 319, 263–274.
| Depth zonation and latitudinal distribution of deep-sea scavenging demersal fishes of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 42 to 53°N.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kinnear, JE, Sumner, NR, and Onus, ML (2002). The red fox in Australia: an exotic predator turned biocontrol agent. Biological Conservation 108, 335–359.
| The red fox in Australia: an exotic predator turned biocontrol agent.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Knight, MH (1995). Drought-related mortality of wildlife in the southern Kalahari and the role of man. African Journal of Ecology 33, 377–394.
| Drought-related mortality of wildlife in the southern Kalahari and the role of man.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kostecke, RM, Linz, GM, and Bleier, WJ (2001). Survival of avian carcasses and photographic evidence of predators and scavengers. Journal of Field Ornithology 72, 439–447.
| Survival of avian carcasses and photographic evidence of predators and scavengers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krofel, M, Kos, I, and Jerina, K (2012). The noble cats and the big bad scavengers: effects of dominant scavengers on solitary predators. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 66, 1297–1304.
| The noble cats and the big bad scavengers: effects of dominant scavengers on solitary predators.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lenth, RV (2016). Least-squares means: the R package lsmeans. Journal of statistical software 69, 1–33.
| Least-squares means: the R package lsmeans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
López-López, P, Benavent-Corai, J, García-Ripollés, C, and Urios, V (2013). Scavengers on the move: behavioural changes in foraging search patterns during the annual cycle. PLoS ONE 8, .
| Scavengers on the move: behavioural changes in foraging search patterns during the annual cycle.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mann, RW, Bass, WM, and Meadows, L (1990). Time since death and decomposition of the human body: variables and observations in case and experimental field studies. Journal of Forensic Sciences 35, 103–111.
| Time since death and decomposition of the human body: variables and observations in case and experimental field studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mateo-Tomás, P, Olea, PP, Moleón, M, Vicente, J, Botella, F, Selva, N, Viñuela, J, and Sánchez-Zapata, JA (2015). From regional to global patterns in vertebrate scavenger communities subsidized by big game hunting. Diversity and Distributions 21, 913–924.
| From regional to global patterns in vertebrate scavenger communities subsidized by big game hunting.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mateo-Tomás, P, Olea, PP, Moleón, M, Selva, N, and Sánchez-Zapata, JA (2017). Both rare and common species support ecosystem services in scavenger communities. Global Ecology and Biogeography 26, 1459–1470.
| Both rare and common species support ecosystem services in scavenger communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Matuszewski, S, Bajerlein, D, Konwerski, S, and Szpila, K (2010). Insect succession and carrion decomposition in selected forests of Central Europe. Part 1: pattern and rate of decomposition. Forensic Science International 194, 85–93.
| Insect succession and carrion decomposition in selected forests of Central Europe. Part 1: pattern and rate of decomposition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McComb, LB, Lentini, PE, Harley, DKP, Lumsden, LF, Antrobus, JS, Eyre, AC, and Briscoe, NJ (2018). Feral cat predation on Leadbeater’s possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) and observations of arboreal hunting at nest boxes. Australian Mammalogy 41, 262–265.
| Feral cat predation on Leadbeater’s possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) and observations of arboreal hunting at nest boxes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Merritt RW, De Jong GD (2015) Arthropod communities in terrestrial environments. In ‘Carrion ecology, evolution, and their applications’. (Eds ME Benbow, JK Tomberlin, AM Tarone) pp. 65–92. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
Moleón, M, Sánchez-Zapata, JA, Selva, N, Donázar, JA, and Owen-Smith, N (2014). Inter-specific interactions linking predation and scavenging in terrestrial vertebrate assemblages. Biological Reviews 89, 1042–1054.
| Inter-specific interactions linking predation and scavenging in terrestrial vertebrate assemblages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moleón, M, Sánchez-Zapata, JA, Sebastián-González, E, and Owen-Smith, N (2015). Carcass size shapes the structure and functioning of an African scavenging assemblage. Oikos 124, 1391–1403.
| Carcass size shapes the structure and functioning of an African scavenging assemblage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moleón M, Selva N, Quaggiotto MM, Bailey DM, Cortés-Avizanda A, DeVault TL (2019) Carrion availability in space and time. In ‘Carrion ecology and management’. (Eds PP Olea, P Mateo-Tomás, JA Sánchez-Zapata) pp. 23–44. (Springer: Cham, Switzerland)
Moon DL (2005) A study of the abundance, distribution and daily activities of the australian raven (Corvus coronoides) in urban wetland parks. Bachelor of Arts Honours, Edith Cowan University.
Moreno-Opo, R, and Margalida, A (2013). Carcasses provide resources not exclusively to scavengers: patterns of carrion exploitation by passerine birds. Ecosphere 4, 1–15.
| Carcasses provide resources not exclusively to scavengers: patterns of carrion exploitation by passerine birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moseby, K, Hodgens, P, Bannister, H, Mooney, P, Brandle, R, Lynch, C, Young, C, Jansen, J, and Jensen, M (2021). The ecological costs and benefits of a feral cat poison-baiting programme for protection of reintroduced populations of the western quoll and brushtail possum. Austral Ecology 46, 1366–1382.
| The ecological costs and benefits of a feral cat poison-baiting programme for protection of reintroduced populations of the western quoll and brushtail possum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Newsome, TM, and Spencer, EE (2022). Megafires attract avian scavenging but carcasses still persist. Diversity and Distributions 28, 515–528.
| Megafires attract avian scavenging but carcasses still persist.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Newsome, AE, Corbett, LK, Catling, PC, and Burt, RJ (1983). The feeding ecology of the dingo. 1. Stomach contents from trapping in south-eastern Australia, and the non-target wildlife also caught in dingo traps. Wildlife Research 10, 477–486.
| The feeding ecology of the dingo. 1. Stomach contents from trapping in south-eastern Australia, and the non-target wildlife also caught in dingo traps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nugent G, Sweetapple P, Coleman J, Suisted P (2000) Possum feeding patterns: dietary tactics of a reluctant folivore. In ‘The brushtail possum: biology, impact and management of an introduced marsupial’. (Ed. TL Montague) pp. 10–23. (Manaaki Whenua Press: Lincoln, New Zealand)
O’Brien, RC, Larcombe, A, Meyer, J, Forbes, SL, and Dadour, I (2010a). The scavenging behaviour of the Australian raven (Corvus coronoides): patterns and influencing factors. Sylvia 46, 133–148.
O’Brien, RC, Forbes, SL, Meyer, J, and Dadour, I (2010b). Forensically significant scavenging guilds in the southwest of Western Australia. Forensic Science International 198, 85–91.
| Forensically significant scavenging guilds in the southwest of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oksanen, J, Simpson, G, Blanchet, F, Kindt, R, Legendre, P, Minchin, P, O’Hara, R, Solymos, P, Stevens, M, Szoecs, E, Wagner, H, Barbour, M, Bedward, M, Bolker, B, Borcard, D, Carvalho, G, Chirico, M, De Caceres, M, Durand, S, Evangelista, H, FitzJohn, R, Friendly, M, Furneaux, B, Hannigan, G, Hill, M, Lahti, L, McGlinn, D, Ouellette, M, Ribeiro Cunha, E, Smith, T, Stier, A, Ter Braak, C, and Weedon, J (2022). vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 2.6-4. , .
Owen, HJ, and Norton, DA (1995). The diet of introduced brushtail possums Trichosurus vulpecula in a low-diversity New Zealand Nothofagus forest and possible implications for conservation management. Biological Conservation 71, 339–345.
| The diet of introduced brushtail possums Trichosurus vulpecula in a low-diversity New Zealand Nothofagus forest and possible implications for conservation management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pardo-Barquín, E, Mateo-Tomás, P, and Olea, PP (2019). Habitat characteristics from local to landscape scales combine to shape vertebrate scavenging communities. Basic and Applied Ecology 34, 126–139.
| Habitat characteristics from local to landscape scales combine to shape vertebrate scavenging communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pascoe, JH, Mulley, RC, Spencer, R, and Chapple, R (2012). Diet analysis of mammals, raptors and reptiles in a complex predator assemblage in the Blue Mountains, eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology 59, 295–301.
| Diet analysis of mammals, raptors and reptiles in a complex predator assemblage in the Blue Mountains, eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peisley, RK, Saunders, ME, Robinson, WA, and Luck, GW (2017). The role of avian scavengers in the breakdown of carcasses in pastoral landscapes. Emu - Austral Ornithology 117, 68–77.
| The role of avian scavengers in the breakdown of carcasses in pastoral landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pereira, LM, Owen-Smith, N, and Moleón, M (2014). Facultative predation and scavenging by mammalian carnivores: seasonal, regional and intra-guild comparisons. Mammal Review 44, 44–55.
| Facultative predation and scavenging by mammalian carnivores: seasonal, regional and intra-guild comparisons.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rahmstorf, S, and Coumou, D (2011). Increase of extreme events in a warming world. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 17905–17909.
| Increase of extreme events in a warming world.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ray, R-R, Seibold, H, and Heurich, M (2014). Invertebrates outcompete vertebrate facultative scavengers in simulated lynx kills in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 37, 77–88.
| Invertebrates outcompete vertebrate facultative scavengers in simulated lynx kills in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Read, JL, and Wilson, D (2004). Scavengers and detritivores of kangaroo harvest offcuts in arid Australia. Wildlife Research 31, 51–56.
| Scavengers and detritivores of kangaroo harvest offcuts in arid Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rees, JD, Crowther, MS, Kingsford, RT, and Letnic, M (2020). Direct and indirect effects of carrion subsidies in an arid rangeland: carrion has positive effects on facultative scavengers and negative effects on a small songbird. Journal of Arid Environments 179, .
| Direct and indirect effects of carrion subsidies in an arid rangeland: carrion has positive effects on facultative scavengers and negative effects on a small songbird.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robertson, G (1986). The mortality of kangaroos in drought. Wildlife Research 13, 349–354.
| The mortality of kangaroos in drought.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rød-Eriksen, L, Skrutvold, J, Herfindal, I, Jensen, H, and Eide, NE (2020). Highways associated with expansion of boreal scavengers into the alpine tundra of Fennoscandia. Journal of Applied Ecology 57, 1861–1870.
| Highways associated with expansion of boreal scavengers into the alpine tundra of Fennoscandia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sakamoto Y, Ishiguro M, Kitagawa G (Ed.) (1986) ‘Akaike information criterion statistics’ (D. Reidel: Dordrecht, The Netherlands).
Santos, RAL, Santos, SM, Santos-Reis, M, Picanço de Figueiredo, A, Bager, A, Aguiar, LMS, and Ascensão, F (2016). Carcass persistence and detectability: reducing the uncertainty surrounding wildlife-vehicle collision surveys. PLoS ONE 11, .
| Carcass persistence and detectability: reducing the uncertainty surrounding wildlife-vehicle collision surveys.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schoenly KG, Michaud J-P, Moreau G (2015) Design and analysis of field studies in carrion ecology. In ‘Carrion ecology, evolution, and their applications’. (Eds ME Benbow, JK Tomberlin, AM Tarone) pp. 129–148. (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
Sebastián-González, E, Barbosa, JM, Pérez-García, JM, Morales-Reyes, Z, Botella, F, Olea, PP, Mateo-Tomás, P, Moleón, M, Hiraldo, F, Arrondo, E, et al. (2019). Scavenging in the anthropocene: human impact drives vertebrate scavenger species richness at a global scale. Global Change Biology 25, 3005–3017.
| Scavenging in the anthropocene: human impact drives vertebrate scavenger species richness at a global scale.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Selva, N, and Fortuna, MA (2007). The nested structure of a scavenger community. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274, 1101–1108.
| The nested structure of a scavenger community.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Selva, N, Jedrzejewska, B, Jedrzejewski, W, and Wajrak, A (2003). Scavenging on European bison carcasses in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (eastern Poland). Écoscience 10, 303–311.
| Scavenging on European bison carcasses in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (eastern Poland).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Selva, N, Jędrzejewska, B, Jędrzejewski, W, and Wajrak, A (2005). Factors affecting carcass use by a guild of scavengers in European temperate woodland. Canadian Journal of Zoology 83, 1590–1601.
| Factors affecting carcass use by a guild of scavengers in European temperate woodland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Selva N, Moleón M, Sebastián-González E, DeVault TL, Quaggiotto MM, Bailey DM, Lambertucci SA, Margalida A (2019) Vertebrate scavenging communities. In ‘Carrion ecology and management’. (Eds PP Olea, P Mateo-Tomás, JA Sánchez-Zapata) pp. 71–99. (Springer: Cham, Switzerland)
Skellam JG (1967) Seasonal periodicity in theoretical population ecology. In ‘Proceedings of the 5th Berkeley symposium on mathematical statistics and probability’. (Eds LM Le Cam, J Neyman) pp. 179–205. (University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, USA)
Somerfield, PJ, Clarke, KR, and Gorley, RN (2021). Analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) for 2-way layouts using a generalised anosim statistic, with comparative notes on permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA). Austral Ecology 46, 911–926.
| Analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) for 2-way layouts using a generalised anosim statistic, with comparative notes on permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sotillo, A, Depestele, J, Courtens, W, Vincx, M, and Stienen, EWM (2014). Consumption of discards by herring gulls Larus argentatus and lesser black-backed gulls Larus fuscus off the belgian coast in the breeding season. Ardea 102, 195–206.
| Consumption of discards by herring gulls Larus argentatus and lesser black-backed gulls Larus fuscus off the belgian coast in the breeding season.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Spencer, E, and Newsome, T (2021). Dingoes dining with death. Australian Zoologist 41, 433–451.
| Dingoes dining with death.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Spencer, EE, Dickman, CR, Greenville, A, Crowther, MS, Kutt, A, and Newsome, TM (2021). Carcasses attract invasive species and increase artificial nest predation in a desert environment. Global Ecology and Conservation 27, .
| Carcasses attract invasive species and increase artificial nest predation in a desert environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Subalusky, AL, Dutton, CL, Rosi, EJ, and Post, DM (2017). Annual mass drownings of the Serengeti wildebeest migration influence nutrient cycling and storage in the Mara River. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, 7647–7652.
| Annual mass drownings of the Serengeti wildebeest migration influence nutrient cycling and storage in the Mara River.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Subalusky, AL, Dutton, CL, Rosi, EJ, Puth, LM, and Post, DM (2020). A river of bones: wildebeest skeletons leave a legacy of mass mortality in the Mara River, Kenya. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 8, .
| A river of bones: wildebeest skeletons leave a legacy of mass mortality in the Mara River, Kenya.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sweetapple, PJ, Fraser, KW, and Knightbridge, PI (2004). Diet and impacts of brushtail possum populations across an invasion front in south westland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 28, 19–33.
Turner, KL, Abernethy, EF, Conner, LM, Rhodes, OE, and Beasley, JC (2017). Abiotic and biotic factors modulate carrion fate and vertebrate scavenging communities. Ecology 98, 2413–2424.
| Abiotic and biotic factors modulate carrion fate and vertebrate scavenging communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vernes, K, Dennis, A, and Winter, J (2001). Mammalian diet and broad hunting strategy of the dingo (Canis familiaris dingo) in the wet tropical rain forests of northeastern Australia. Biotropica 33, 339–345.
| Mammalian diet and broad hunting strategy of the dingo (Canis familiaris dingo) in the wet tropical rain forests of northeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ward, M, Tulloch, AIT, Radford, JQ, Williams, BA, Reside, AE, Macdonald, SL, Mayfield, HJ, Maron, M, Possingham, HP, Vine, SJ, O’Connor, JL, Massingham, EJ, Greenville, AC, Woinarski, JCZ, Garnett, ST, Lintermans, M, Scheele, BC, Carwardine, J, Nimmo, DG, Lindenmayer, DB, Kooyman, RM, Simmonds, JS, Sonter, LJ, and Watson, JEM (2020). Impact of 2019–2020 mega-fires on Australian fauna habitat. Nature Ecology & Evolution 4, 1321–1326.
| Impact of 2019–2020 mega-fires on Australian fauna habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whisson, DA, Weston, MA, and Shannon, K (2015). Home range, habitat use and movements by the little raven (Corvus mellori) in a coastal peri-urban landscape. Wildlife Research 42, 500–508.
| Home range, habitat use and movements by the little raven (Corvus mellori) in a coastal peri-urban landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
White, TCR (2011). The significance of unripe seeds and animal tissues in the protein nutrition of herbivores. Biological Reviews 86, 217–224.
| The significance of unripe seeds and animal tissues in the protein nutrition of herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wiggins, NL, McArthur, C, McLean, S, and Boyle, R (2003). Effects of two plant secondary metabolites, cineole and gallic acid, on nightly feeding patterns of the common brushtail possum. Journal of Chemical Ecology 29, 1447–1464.
| Effects of two plant secondary metabolites, cineole and gallic acid, on nightly feeding patterns of the common brushtail possum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilmers, CC, and Getz, WM (2004). Simulating the effects of wolf-elk population dynamics on resource flow to scavengers. Ecological Modelling 177, 193–208.
| Simulating the effects of wolf-elk population dynamics on resource flow to scavengers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilmers, CC, and Post, E (2006). Predicting the influence of wolf-provided carrion on scavenger community dynamics under climate change scenarios. Global Change Biology 12, 403–409.
| Predicting the influence of wolf-provided carrion on scavenger community dynamics under climate change scenarios.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilmers, CC, Crabtree, RL, Smith, DW, Murphy, KM, and Getz, WM (2003). Trophic facilitation by introduced top predators: grey wolf subsidies to scavengers in Yellowstone National Park. Journal of Animal Ecology 72, 909–916.
| Trophic facilitation by introduced top predators: grey wolf subsidies to scavengers in Yellowstone National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson, EE, and Wolkovich, EM (2011). Scavenging: how carnivores and carrion structure communities. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, 129–135.
| Scavenging: how carnivores and carrion structure communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
