Free Standard AU & NZ Shipping For All Book Orders Over $80!
Register      Login
Wildlife Research Wildlife Research Society
Ecology, management and conservation in natural and modified habitats
RESEARCH ARTICLE

A spatial genetic framework for koala translocations: where to?

Janette A. Norman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6450-8159 A and Les Christidis A B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Graduate School, Southern Cross University, Military Road, East Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia.

B School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Parkville, Vic. 3052, Australia.

C Corresponding author. Email: janette.norman@scu.edu.au

Wildlife Research 48(3) 193-201 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR20055
Submitted: 6 April 2020  Accepted: 8 January 2021   Published: 16 March 2021

Abstract

Wildlife translocations are gaining acceptance as a valuable conservation tool for threatened Australian fauna. The 2019–2020 bushfire crisis has significantly affected koala habitat across four states, and translocations, when properly implemented, could facilitate the demographic and genetic recovery of affected populations. Current translocation policies lack an appropriate spatial framework to guide conservation actions and this could lead to unexpected or undesirable outcomes with the potential to hinder population recovery. To address these concerns, we propose development of a spatial framework based on knowledge of population genetic structure and population-specific dispersal patterns estimated from molecular data. At an operational level, application of a spatial genetic framework obviates the need to specify restrictive translocation limits, reduces reliance on subjective interpretations of population structure, and provides the potential to improve translocation success and conservation outcomes. We strongly encourage implementation of a spatial genetic framework and its integration into the decision-making process for selection and prioritisation of release sites for translocated koalas by wildlife carers, researchers and wildlife managers. The proposed framework would also support koala conservation and management more broadly.

Keywords: dispersal, koala, policy, spatial genetic structure, translocation.


References

Agriculture Victoria (2020). Code of practice for the welfare of wildlife during rehabilitation. Available at https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/livestock-and-animals/animal-welfare-victoria/pocta-act-1986/victorian-codes-of-practice-for-animal-welfare/code-of-practice-for-the-welfare-of-wildlife-during-rehabilitation [verified 15 March 2021].

Ayres, R. M., Nicol, M., and Raadik, T. (2012). ‘Establishing New Populations for Fire-affected Barred Galaxias (Galaxias fuscus): Site Selection, Trial Translocation and Population Genetics. Black Saturday Victoria 2009 – Natural Values Fire Recovery Program.’ (Department of Sustainability and Environment: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

Ballina Shire Council (2016). ‘Ballina Shire Koala Management Strategy.’ (Ballina Shire Council: Ballina, NSW, Australia.)

Boulton, R. L., and Lau, J. (2015). Threatened Mallee Birds Conservation Action Plan, report June 2015. Report to the Threatened Mallee Birds Implementation Team. BirdLife, Australia.

Brennan, P. A., and Kendrick, K. M. (2006). Mammalian social odours: attraction and individual recognition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 361, 2061–2078.
Mammalian social odours: attraction and individual recognition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17118924PubMed |

Brice, K. L., Trivedi, P., Jeffries, T. C., Blyton, M. D. J., Mitchell, C., Singh, B. K., and Moore, B. D. (2019). The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) faecal microbiome differs with diet in a wild population. PeerJ 7, e6534.
The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) faecal microbiome differs with diet in a wild population.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30972242PubMed |

Capital Ecology (2018). ‘Koala Phascolarctos cinereus Surveys in the Australian Capital Territory, 2018.’ Prepared for Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate, ACT Government. (Capital Ecology: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)

Carroll, C., Rohlf, D. J., Li, Y.-W., Hartl, B., Phillips, M. K., and Noss, R. F. (2015). Connectivity conservation and endangered species recovery: a study in the challenges of defining conservation-reliant species. Conservation Letters 8, 132–138.
Connectivity conservation and endangered species recovery: a study in the challenges of defining conservation-reliant species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Charlton, B. D. (2015). Chemosensory discrimination of identity and familiarity in koalas. Behavioural Processes 119, 38–43.
Chemosensory discrimination of identity and familiarity in koalas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26216198PubMed |

Coates, F., Cullen, P., Zimmer, H., and Shannon, J. (2012). ‘How Snow Gum Forests and Sub-alpine Peatlands Recover after Fire: Black Saturday Victoria 2009 – Natural Values Fire Recovery Program.’ (Department of Sustainability and Environment: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

Cristecu, R., Ellis, W., de Villiers, D., Lee, K., Woosnam-Merchez, O., Frere, C., Banks, P. B., Dique, D., Hodgkison, S., Carrick, H., Carter, D., Smith, P., and Carrick, F. (2011). North Stradroke Island: an island ark for Queensland’s koala population? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland 117, 309–334.

DAWE (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment) (2020). Rapid analysis of impacts of the 2019–20 fires on animal species, and prioritisation of species for management response – preliminary report to the Wildlife and Threatened Species Bushfire Recovery Expert Panel. Australian Government, Canberra, ACT, Australia. Available at http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/bushfire-recovery/priority-animals [verified 30 March 2020].

DELWP (Department of Environment Land, Water and Planning, Victoria) (2017). Hundreds of koalas make Kinglake their new home. Available at https://www.delwp.vic.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/hundreds-of-koals-make-kinglake-their-new-home [verified 30 March 2020].

DELWP (Department of Environment Land, Water and Planning, Victoria) (2020). ‘Victoria’s Bushfire Emergency: Biodiversity Response and Recovery. Version 2.’ (Victoria State Government: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

Dennison, S., Frankham, G. J., Neaves, L. E., Flanagan, C., Fitzgibbon, S., Eldridge, M. D. B., and Johnson, R. N. (2016). Population genetics of the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) in north-eastern New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland. Australian Journal of Zoology 64, 402–412.
Population genetics of the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) in north-eastern New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

DES (Department of Environment and Science Queensland) (2019). ‘Operational Policy. Release of Rehabilitated Koalas and the Take and Release of Koalas in Imminent Danger.’ (Queensland Government: Brisbane, Qld, Australia.)

DEW (Department of Environment and Water South Australia) (2020). Environment SA news. Wildlife recovery on Kangaroo Island update 18 March 2020. Available at https://www.environment.sa.gov.au/news-hub/news/articles/2020/03/ki-wildlife-recovery-update [verified 14 October 2020].

DEWNR (Department of Environment Water and Natural Resources, South Australia) (2016). ‘The South Australian Koala Conservation and Management Strategy.’ (South Australian Government: Adelaide, SA, Australia.)

DPIE (Department of Planning, Infrastructure and Environment, NSW) (2019). ‘Framework for the Spatial Prioritisation of Koala Conservation Actions in NSW.’ (NSW Government: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

DPIE (Department of Planning, Infrastructure and Environment, NSW) (2020a). ‘Wildlife and Conservation Bushfire Recovery, Immediate Response January 2020.’ (NSW Government: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

DPIE (Department of Planning, Infrastructure and Environment, NSW) (2020b). Helping koalas in emergencies. (NSW Government: Sydney, NSW, Australia.) Available at https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/-/media/OEH/Corporate-Site/Documents/Animals-and-plants/Native-animals/helping-koalas-in-emergencies-200048.pdf [verified 30 March 2020].

DSE (Department of Sustainability and Environment Victoria) (2004). ‘Victoria’s Koala Management Strategy.’ (Victorian Government: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

Ellis, W. A., Hale, P. T., and Carrick, F. (2002). Breeding dynamics of koalas in open woodlands. Wildlife Research 29, 19–25.
Breeding dynamics of koalas in open woodlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ellis, W. A., FitzGibbon, S., Barth, B., et al. (2018). Koalas of the Clarke-Connors Range. Final progress report. Koala Ecology Group, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.

EPA (Environmental Protection Agency Queensland) (2006). ‘Nature Conservation (Koala). Conservation Plan 2006 and Management Program 2006–2016.’ (Queensland Government: Brisbane, Qld, Australia.)

Griffith, B., Scott, J. M., Carpenter, J. W., and Reed, C. (1989). Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy. Science 245, 477–480.
Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17750257PubMed |

Harrison, H. B., Saenz-Agudelo, P., Planes, S., Jones, G. P., and Berumen, M. L. (2013). Relative accuracy of three common methods of parentage analysis in natural populations. Molecular Ecology 22, 1158–1170.
Relative accuracy of three common methods of parentage analysis in natural populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23278953PubMed |

Hedrick, P. W., and Fredrickson, R. (2010). Genetic rescue guidelines with examples from Mexican wolves and Florida panthers. Conservation Genetics 11, 615–626.
Genetic rescue guidelines with examples from Mexican wolves and Florida panthers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

IUCN/SSP (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Species Survival Commission) (2013). ‘Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations. Version 1.0.’ (IUCN/Species Survival Commission: Gland, Switzerland.)

Jamieson, I. G. (2011). Founder effects, inbreeding, and loss of genetic diversity in four avian reintroduction programs. Conservation Biology 25, 115–123.
Founder effects, inbreeding, and loss of genetic diversity in four avian reintroduction programs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20825445PubMed |

Kelly, E., and Phillips, B. L. (2016). Targeted gene flow for conservation. Conservation Biology 30, 259–267.
Targeted gene flow for conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26332195PubMed |

Kjeldsen, S. R., Raadsma, H. W., Leigh, K. A., Tobey, J. R., Phalen, D., Krockenberger, A., Ellis, W. A., Hynes, E., Higgins, D. P., and Zenger, K. R. (2019). Genomic comparisons reveal biogeographic and anthropogenic impacts in the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus): a dietary-specialist species distributed across heterogeneous environments. Heredity 122, 525–544.
Genomic comparisons reveal biogeographic and anthropogenic impacts in the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus): a dietary-specialist species distributed across heterogeneous environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30209291PubMed |

Koenig, W. D., Van Vuren, D., and Hooge, P. N. (1996). Detectability, philopatry, and the distribution of dispersal distances in vertebrates. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 11, 514–517.
Detectability, philopatry, and the distribution of dispersal distances in vertebrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lande, R. (1993). Risks of population extinction from demographic and environmental stochasticity and random catastrophe. American Naturalist 142, 911–927.
Risks of population extinction from demographic and environmental stochasticity and random catastrophe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lane, A., Wallis, K., and Phillips, S. (2020). A review of the conservation status of New South Wales populations of the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) leading up to and including part of the 2019/2020 fire event. Report to International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW). Biolink Ecological Consultants, Uki, NSW, Australia.

Lee, T., Zenger, K. R., Close, R. L., Jones, M., and Phalen, D. N. (2010). Defining spatial genetic structure and management units for vulnerable koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in the Sydney region. Australian Wildlife Research 37, 156–165.
Defining spatial genetic structure and management units for vulnerable koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in the Sydney region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lee, K. E., Seddon, J., Johnston, S., FitzGibbon, S., Carrick, F., Melzer, A., Bercovitch, F., and Ellis, W. (2012a). Genetic diversity in natural and introduced island populations of koalas in Queensland. Australian Journal of Zoology 60, 303–310.
Genetic diversity in natural and introduced island populations of koalas in Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lee, T., Zenger, K. R., Close, R. L., and Phalen, D. N. (2012b). Genetic analysis reveals a distinct and highly diverse koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) population in South Gippsland, Victoria, Australia. Australian Mammalogy 34, 68–74.
Genetic analysis reveals a distinct and highly diverse koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) population in South Gippsland, Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lee, K. E., Ellis, W. A. H., Carrick, F. N., Corley, S. W., Johnston, S. D., Baverstock, P. R., Nock, C. J., Rowe, K. C., and Seddon, J. M. (2013). Anthropogenic changes to the landscape resulted in colonization of koalas in north-east New South Wales, Australia. Austral Ecology 38, 355–363.
Anthropogenic changes to the landscape resulted in colonization of koalas in north-east New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McCauley, D. E. (1991). Genetic consequences of local-population extinction and recolonization. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 6, 5–8.
Genetic consequences of local-population extinction and recolonization.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Nathan, R. (2005). Long-distance dispersal research: building a network of yellow brick roads. Diversity & Distributions 11, 125–130.
Long-distance dispersal research: building a network of yellow brick roads.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Norman, J. A., Phillips, S. S., Blackmore, C. J., Goldingay, R., and Christidis, L. (2019). Integrating long-distance dispersal into vertebrate conservation planning: scaling relationships and parentage-based dispersal analysis in the koala. Conservation Genetics 20, 1163–1174.
Integrating long-distance dispersal into vertebrate conservation planning: scaling relationships and parentage-based dispersal analysis in the koala.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

NPWSSA (National Parks and Wildlife Service South Australia) (2020). Learn how rescued Kangaroo Island koalas have found a new home at Cleland. Available at https://www.parks.sa.gov.au/insider-tips/ki-koalas-move-to-cleland [verified 19 October 2020].

OEH (Office of Environment and Heritage NSW) (2017). ‘Securing the Koala in the Wild in NSW for 100 years.’ (NSW Government: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

OEH (Office of Environment and Heritage NSW) (2018). ‘Code of Practice for Injured, Sick and Orphaned Koalas.’ (NSW Government: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

OEH (Office of Environment and Heritage NSW) (2019a) ‘Translocation Operational Policy.’ (NSW Government: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

OEH (Office of Environment and Heritage NSW) (2019b) ‘NSW Koala Strategy.’ (NSW Government: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

Phillips, S., Wallis, K., and Lane, A. (2020). Quantifying the impacts of bushfire on populations of wild koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus): insights from the 2019/2020 fire season. Final report to WWF-Australia. Biolink Ecological Consultants, Uki, NSW, Australia.

Pitman, A. J., Narisma, G. T., and McAneney, J. (2007). The impact of climate change on the risk of forest and grassland fires in Australia. Climatic Change 84, 383–401.
The impact of climate change on the risk of forest and grassland fires in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Predavec, M. (2008). Review of progress in implementing the 1998 National Koala Conservation Strategy. Report prepared by Parsons Brinckerhoff for the Commonwealth Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

Ralls, K., Ballou, J. D., Dudash, M. R., Eldridge, M. D. B., Fenster, C. B., Lacy, R. C., Sunnucks, P., and Frankham, R. (2018). Call for a paradigm shift in the genetic management of fragmented populations. Conservation Letters 11, e12412.
Call for a paradigm shift in the genetic management of fragmented populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rhodes, J. R., Hood, A., Melzer, A., and Mucci, A. (2017). Queensland koala expert panel: a new direction for the conservation of koalas in Queensland. A report to the Minister for Environment and Heritage Protection. Queensland Government, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.

Science for Wildlife (2020). Koalas saved ahead of bushfires in the Blue Mountains. Available at https://scienceforwildlife.org/koalas-saved-ahead-of-bushfire-in-the-blue-mountains [verified 19 October 2020].

Scotts, D. (2013). Conserving koala populations of the NSW upper mid-north coast. Preliminary mapping of populations as a basis for further survey, research and planning. NSW National Parks Association, Sydney, NSW, Australia.

Sgrò, C. M., Lowe, A. J., and Hoffmann, A. (2011). Building evolutionary resilience for conserving biodiversity under climate change. Evolutionary Applications 4, 326–337.
Building evolutionary resilience for conserving biodiversity under climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25567976PubMed |

Sherwin, W. B., Timms, P., Wilcken, J., and Houlden, B. (2000). Analysis and conservation implications of koala genetics. Conservation Biology 14, 639–649.
Analysis and conservation implications of koala genetics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Symonds, M. R., and Elgar, M. A. (2008). The evolution of pheromone diversity. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23, 220–228.
The evolution of pheromone diversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tensen, L., Vuuren, B., Plessis, C., and Marneweck, D. (2019). African wild dogs: genetic viability of translocated populations across South Africa. Biological Conservation 234, 131–139.
African wild dogs: genetic viability of translocated populations across South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Threatened Species Scientific Committee (TSSC) (2020). ‘Finalised Priority Assessment List for the Assessment Period Commencing 1 October 2020.’ (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, Australian Government: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)

Trakhtenbrot, A., Nathan, R., Perry, G., and Richardson, D. M. (2005). The importance of long-distance dispersal in biodiversity conservation. Diversity & Distributions 11, 173–181.
The importance of long-distance dispersal in biodiversity conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Truvé, J., and Lemel, J. (2003). Timing and distance of natal dispersal for wild boar Sus scrofa in Sweden. Wildlife Biology 9, 51–57.
Timing and distance of natal dispersal for wild boar Sus scrofa in Sweden.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Van Houtan, K. S., Halley, J. M., Van Aarde, R., and Pimm, S. L. (2009). Achieving success with small, translocated mammal populations. Conservation Letters 2, 254–262.
Achieving success with small, translocated mammal populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wallis, K., Lane, A., and Phillips, S. (2020) A review of the conservation status of Queensland populations of the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) arising from events leading up to and including the 2019/2020 fire event. Report to World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Australia. Biolink Ecological Consultants, Uki, NSW, Australia.

Ward, M., Tulloch, A., Radford, J., Williams, B., Reside, A., Macdonald, S., Mayfield, H., Maron, M., Possingham, H., Vine, S., O’Connor, J., Massingham, E., Greenville, A., Woinarski, J., Garnett, S., Lintermans, M., Scheele, B., Carwardine, J., Nimmo, D., and Watson, J. (2020). Impact of 2019–2020 mega-fires on Australian fauna habitat. Nature Ecology & Evolution 4, 1321–1326.
Impact of 2019–2020 mega-fires on Australian fauna habitat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wedrowicz, F., Mosse, J., Wright, W., and Hogan, F. E. (2018). Genetic structure and diversity of the koala population in South Gippsland, Victoria: a remnant population of high conservation significance. Conservation Genetics 19, 713–728.
Genetic structure and diversity of the koala population in South Gippsland, Victoria: a remnant population of high conservation significance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Weeks, A. R., Sgró, C. M., Young, A. G., Frankham, R., Mitchell, N. J., Miller, K. A., Byrne, M., Coates, D. J., Eldridge, M. B. D., Sunnucks, P., Breed, M. F., James, E. A., and Hoffmann, A. A. (2011). Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective. Evolutionary Applications 4, 709–725.
Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22287981PubMed |

Whiteley, A. R., Fitzpatrick, S. W., Funk, W. C., and Tallmon, D. A. (2015). Genetic rescue to the rescue. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 30, 42–49.
Genetic rescue to the rescue.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Williams, R. J., Bradstock, R. A., Cary, G. J., Enright, N. J., Gill, A. M., Leidloff, A. C., Lucas, C., Whelan, R. J., Andersen, A. N., Bowman, D. J. M. S., Clarke, P. J., Cook, G. D., Hennessey, K. J., and York, A. (2009). Interactions between climate change, fire regimes and biodiversity in Australia: a preliminary assessment. Report to the Department of Climate Change and Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. DCC, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

Wolf, C. M., Griffith, B., Reed, C., and Temple, S. A. (1996). Avian and mammalian translocations: update and reanalysis of 1987 survey data. Conservation Biology 10, 1142–1154.
Avian and mammalian translocations: update and reanalysis of 1987 survey data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wright, S. (1946). Isolation by distance under diverse systems of mating. Genetics 31, 39–59.
| 21009706PubMed |

Zimmerman, S. J., Aldridge, C. L., and Oyler-McCance, S. J. (2020). An empirical comparison of population genetic analyses using microsatellite and SNP data for a species of conservation concern. BMC Genomics 21, 382.
An empirical comparison of population genetic analyses using microsatellite and SNP data for a species of conservation concern.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 32487020PubMed |