Capturing the cryptic: a comparison of detection methods for stoats (Mustela erminea) in alpine habitats
Des H. V. Smith A and Kerry A. Weston B C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Wildland Consultants Ltd, PO Box 33499, Barrington, Christchurch 8244, New Zealand.
B Science and Policy Group, Department of Conservation, Private Bag 4715, Christchurch Mail Centre, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand.
C Corresponding author. Email: kweston@doc.govt.nz
Wildlife Research 44(5) 418-426 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR16159
Submitted: 25 August 2016 Accepted: 16 June 2017 Published: 6 October 2017
Abstract
Context: The ability to monitor the spatial distribution and abundance of species is essential for detecting population changes, and assessing the progress of conservation management programs. Stoats (Mustela erminea) are a serious conservation pest in New Zealand, but current monitoring methods are not sensitive enough to detect stoats in all situations.
Aims: We compare the effectiveness of the most commonly employed method for monitoring mustelids in New Zealand, footprint-tracking tunnels, with two alternative detection methods, camera traps and artificial nests. We were interested in determining whether alternative detection methods were more sensitive in detecting stoats than tracking tunnels.
Methods: We established a network of tracking tunnels, artificial nests and camera traps within alpine habitat. Devices were checked for stoat detections weekly across two seasons, in spring–early summer and autumn. Differences in detection rates and cost effectiveness among methods were analysed among seasons.
Key results: In spring–early summer, the time to first stoat detection using footprint-tracking tunnels was 61 days, compared with 7 days for camera traps and 8 days for artificial nests. The rate of stoat detection using artificial nests was significantly higher than it was using tracking tunnels (coef = 3.05 ± 1.29, P = 0.02), and moderately higher using camera traps (coef = 1.34 ± 1.09, P = 0.22). In autumn, when overall detectability of stoats was higher, there was no significant difference in detection rates among the three methods, although camera traps again recorded the earliest detection. Artificial nests were the most cost effective detection method in both seasons.
Conclusions: Artificial nests and camera traps were more efficient at detecting stoats during their spring breeding season (when they are known to be difficult to detect), compared with the more established footprint-tracking tunnel method. Artificial nests have potential to be developed into a monitoring index for small mammals, although further research is required. Both methods provide an important alternative to footprint tracking indices for monitoring stoats.
Implications: Our study demonstrated the importance of calibration among different monitoring methods, particularly when the target species is difficult to detect. We hypothesise that detection methods that do not rely on conspicuous, artificially constructed devices, may be more effective for monitoring small, cryptic mammals.
Additional keywords: mustelid, relative abundance indices, trail camera, track surveys.
References
Alterio, N., Moller, H., and Ratz, H. (1998). Movements and habitat use of feral house cats Felis catus, stoats Mustela erminea and ferrets Mustela furo, in grassland surrounding yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes breeding areas in spring. Biological Conservation 83, 187–194.| Movements and habitat use of feral house cats Felis catus, stoats Mustela erminea and ferrets Mustela furo, in grassland surrounding yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes breeding areas in spring.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Alterio, N., Moller, H., and Brown, K. (1999). Trappability and densities of stoats (Mustela erminea) and ship rats (Rattus rattus) in a South Island Nothofagus forest, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 23, 95–100.
Anile, S., and Devillard, S. (2016). Study design and body mass influence RAIs from camera trap studies: evidence from the Felidae. Animal Conservation 19, 35–45.
| Study design and body mass influence RAIs from camera trap studies: evidence from the Felidae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bonesi, L., and Macdonald, D. W. (2004). Evaluation of sign surveys as a way to estimate the relative abundance of American mink (Mustela vison). Journal of Zoology 262, 65–72.
| Evaluation of sign surveys as a way to estimate the relative abundance of American mink (Mustela vison).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brown, J. A., and Miller, C. J. (1998). ‘Monitoring Stoat (Mustela erminea) Control Operations: Power Analysis and Design.’ https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/11221 [Accessed 11 April 2014]
Burnham, K., and Anderson, D. (2002). Information and likelihood theory: a basis for model selection and inference. In ‘Model Selection and Multimodel Inference: a Practical Information-Theoretic Approach’. (Eds K. Burnham, D. Anderson.) pp. 49–97. (Springer: New York.)
Choquenot, D., and Ruscoe, W. A. (2000). Mouse population eruptions in New Zealand forests: the role of population density and seedfall. Journal of Animal Ecology 69, 1058–1070.
| Mouse population eruptions in New Zealand forests: the role of population density and seedfall.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Crawley, M. J. (2007) ‘The R Book.’ (John Wiley and Sons: Chichester, UK.)
Cuthbert, R. J., Sommer, E., and Davis, L. S. (2000). Seasonal variation in the diet of stoats in a breeding colony of Hutton’s shearwaters. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 27, 367–373.
| Seasonal variation in the diet of stoats in a breeding colony of Hutton’s shearwaters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cutler, T. L., and Swann, D. E. (1999). Using remote photography in wildlife ecology: a review. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27, 571–581.
De Bondi, N., White, J. G., Stevens, M., and Cooke, R. (2010). A comparison of the effectiveness of camera trapping and live trapping for sampling terrestrial small-mammal communities. Wildlife Research 37, 456–465.
| A comparison of the effectiveness of camera trapping and live trapping for sampling terrestrial small-mammal communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dilks, P., Willans, M., Pryde, M., and Fraser, I. (2003). Large scale stoat control to protect mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala) and kaka (Nestor meridionalis) in the Eglinton Valley, Fiordland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 27, 1–9.
Edwards, G., De Preu, N., Shakeshaft, B., and Crealy, I. (2000). An evaluation of two methods of assessing feral cat and dingo abundance in central Australia. Wildlife Research 27, 143–149.
| An evaluation of two methods of assessing feral cat and dingo abundance in central Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Elliott, G. P. (1996). Productivity and mortality of mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala). New Zealand Journal of Zoology 23, 229–237.
| Productivity and mortality of mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Elliott, G. P., Dilks, P. J., and O’Donnell, C. F. (1996). The ecology of yellow‐crowned parakeets (Cyanoramphus auriceps) in Nothofagus forest in Fiordland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 23, 249–265.
| The ecology of yellow‐crowned parakeets (Cyanoramphus auriceps) in Nothofagus forest in Fiordland, New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Engeman, R. M. (2005). Indexing principles and a widely applicable paradigm for indexing animal populations. Wildlife Research 32, 203–210.
| Indexing principles and a widely applicable paradigm for indexing animal populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Faaborg, J. (2004). Truly artificial nest studies. Conservation Biology 18, 369–370.
| Truly artificial nest studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Getzlaff, C. L., Sievwright, K. A., Hickey-Elliott, A. B., and Armstrong, D. P. (2013). Predator indices from artificial nests and tracking tunnels: do they tell the same story? New Zealand Journal of Ecology 37, 232–239.
Gillies, C. A., and Williams, D. (2013). ‘DOC Tracking Tunnel Guide v2.5.2: Using Tracking Tunnels to Monitor Rodents and Mustelids.’ (Department of Conservation: Hamilton, New Zealand.)
Glen, A., Warburton, B., Cruz, J., and Coleman, M. (2014). Comparison of camera traps and kill traps for detecting mammalian predators: a field trial. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 41, 155–160.
| Comparison of camera traps and kill traps for detecting mammalian predators: a field trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kaplan, E. L., and Meier, P. (1958). Nonparametric estimation from incomplete observations. Journal of the American Statistical Association 53, 457–481.
| Nonparametric estimation from incomplete observations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kelly, M. J., and Holub, E. L. (2008). Camera trapping of carnivores: trap success among camera types and across species, and habitat selection by species, on Salt Pond Mountain, Giles County, Virginia. Northeastern Naturalist 15, 249–262.
| Camera trapping of carnivores: trap success among camera types and across species, and habitat selection by species, on Salt Pond Mountain, Giles County, Virginia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
King, C. M. (1983). The relationship between beech Nothofagus sp. seedfall and populations of mice Mus musculus, and the demographic and dietary responses of stoats (Mustela erminea); in three New Zealand forests. Journal of Animal Ecology 52, 141–166.
| The relationship between beech Nothofagus sp. seedfall and populations of mice Mus musculus, and the demographic and dietary responses of stoats (Mustela erminea); in three New Zealand forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
King, C. M., and Powell, R. A. (2006) ‘The Natural History of Weasels and Stoats: Ecology, Behavior, and Management.’ 2nd edn. (Oxford University Press: New York.)
King, C. M., McDonald, R. M., Martin, R. D., and Dennis, T. (2009). Why is eradication of invasive mustelids so difficult? Biological Conservation 142, 806–816.
| Why is eradication of invasive mustelids so difficult?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Major, R. E., and Kendal, C. E. (1996). The contribution of artificial nest experiments to understanding avian reproductive success: a review of methods and conclusions. The Ibis 138, 298–307.
| The contribution of artificial nest experiments to understanding avian reproductive success: a review of methods and conclusions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Martin, A. E., and Fahrig, L. (2012). Measuring and selecting scales of effect for landscape predictors in species–habitat models. Ecological Applications 22, 2277–2292.
| Measuring and selecting scales of effect for landscape predictors in species–habitat models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Maxwell, J. M. (2001). Fiordland takahe: population trends, dynamics and problems. In ‘The Takahe: Fifty Years of Conservation Management and Research’. (Eds W. Lee and I. Jamieson.) pp. 61–79. (University of Otago Press: Dunedin, New Zealand.)
McCallum, J. (2013). Changing use of camera traps in mammalian field research: habitats, taxa and study types. Mammal Review 43, 196–206.
| Changing use of camera traps in mammalian field research: habitats, taxa and study types.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McLennan, J., Potter, M., Robertson, H., Wake, G., Colbourne, R., Dew, L., Joyce, L., McCann, A., Miles, J., and Miller, P. (1996). Role of predation in the decline of kiwi, Apteryx spp., in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 20, 27–35.
Michelsen-Heath, S. (1989) The breeding biology of the rock wren, Xenicus gilviventris, in the Murchison Mountains, Fiordland National Park, New Zealand. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
Møller, A. P. (1989). Nest site selection across field–woodland ecotones: the effect of nest predation. Oikos 56, 240–246.
| Nest site selection across field–woodland ecotones: the effect of nest predation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Murphy, E. C., and Dowding, J. E. (1994). Range and diet of stoats (Mustela erminea) in a New Zealand beech forest. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 18, 11–27.
Murphy, E. C., and Dowding, J. E. (1995). Ecology of the stoat in Nothofagus forest: home range, habitat use and diet at different stages of the beech mast cycle. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 19, 97–109.
Murphy, E. C., Keedwell, R. J., Brown, K. P., and Westbrooke, I. (2004). Diet of mammalian predators in braided river beds in the central South Island, New Zealand. Wildlife Research 31, 631–638.
| Diet of mammalian predators in braided river beds in the central South Island, New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Donnell, C. F. J., Clapperton, B. K., and Monks, J. M. (2015). Impacts of introduced mammalian predators on indigenous birds of freshwater wetlands in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 39, 19–33.
O’Donnell, C. F. J., Weston, K. A., and Monks, J. M. (2016). Impacts of introduced mammalian predators on New Zealand’s alpine fauna. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 41, 1–22.
Pickerell, G. A., O’Donnell, C. F. J., Wilson, D. J., and Seddon, P. J. (2014). How can we detect introduced mammalian predators in non-forest habitats? A comparison of techniques. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 38, 86–102.
R Core Team (2013). ‘R: a Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.’ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria.)
Ratz, H., and Murphy, B. (1999). Effects of habitat and introduced mammalian predators on the breeding success of yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes, South Island, New Zealand. Pacific Conservation Biology 5, 16–27.
| Effects of habitat and introduced mammalian predators on the breeding success of yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes, South Island, New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robinson, W. D., Styrsky, J. N., Brawn, J. D., and Stouffer, P. (2005). Are artificial bird nests effective surrogates for estimating predation on real bird nests? A test with tropical birds. The Auk 122, 843–852.
| Are artificial bird nests effective surrogates for estimating predation on real bird nests? A test with tropical birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rowcliffe, J. M., Field, J., Turvey, S. T., and Carbone, C. (2008). Estimating animal density using camera traps without the need for individual recognition. Journal of Applied Ecology 45, 1228–1236.
| Estimating animal density using camera traps without the need for individual recognition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Silveira, L., Jácomo, A. T. A., and Diniz-Filho, J. A. F. (2003). Camera trap, line transect census and track surveys: a comparative evaluation. Biological Conservation 114, 351–355.
| Camera trap, line transect census and track surveys: a comparative evaluation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith, D. H. V., and Jamieson, I. (2005). Lack of movement of stoats (Mustela erminea) between Nothofagus valley floors and alpine grasslands, with implications for the conservation of New Zealand’s endangered fauna. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29, 45–52.
Smith, D. H. V., Wilson, D. J., Moller, H., Murphy, E. C., and van Heezik, Y. (2007). Selection of alpine grasslands over beech forest by stoats (Mustela erminea) in montane southern New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 31, 88–97.
Smith, D. H. V., Wilson, D. J., Moller, H., and Murphy, E. C. (2008a). Using artificial nests to explore predation by introduced predators inhabiting alpine areas in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 35, 119–128.
| Using artificial nests to explore predation by introduced predators inhabiting alpine areas in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith, D. H. V., Wilson, D. J., Moller, H., Murphy, E. C., and Pickerell, G. (2008b). Stoat density, diet and survival compared between alpine grassland and beech forest habitats. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 32, 166–176.
Swann, D. E., Hass, C. C., Dalton, D. C., and Wolf, S. A. (2004). Infrared-triggered cameras for detecting wildlife: an evaluation and review. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32, 357–365.
| Infrared-triggered cameras for detecting wildlife: an evaluation and review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Therneau, T. (2014). ‘A Package for Survival Analysis in S. R Package Version 2.37.’ https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=survival [Accessed 11 August 2014]
Thompson, H. (2006). The use of floating rafts to detect and trap American mink Mustela vison for the conservation of water voles Arvicola terrestris along the River Wensum in Norfolk, England. Conservation Evidence 3, 114–116.
Thompson, F. R., and Burhans, D. E. (2004). Differences in predators of artificial and real songbird nests: evidence of bias in artificial nest studies. Conservation Biology 18, 373–380.
| Differences in predators of artificial and real songbird nests: evidence of bias in artificial nest studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thompson, W. L., White, G. C., and Gowan, C. (1998) ‘Monitoring Vertebrate Populations.’ (Academic Press: San Diego.)
Tobler, M., Carrillo‐Percastegui, S., Leite Pitman, R., Mares, R., and Powell, G. (2008). An evaluation of camera traps for inventorying large‐ and medium‐sized terrestrial rainforest mammals. Animal Conservation 11, 169–178.
| An evaluation of camera traps for inventorying large‐ and medium‐sized terrestrial rainforest mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Veale, A., Edge, K. A., McMurtrie, P., Fewster, R., Clout, M., and Gleeson, D. (2013). Using genetic techniques to quantify reinvasion, survival and in situ breeding rates during control operations. Molecular Ecology 22, 5071–5083.
| Using genetic techniques to quantify reinvasion, survival and in situ breeding rates during control operations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3sbnvFKlsA%3D%3D&md5=6eec7047912f51ea1afbb830b8311690CAS |
Vine, S., Crowther, M., Lapidge, S., Dickman, C. R., Mooney, N., Piggott, M., and English, A. (2009). Comparison of methods to detect rare and cryptic species: a case study using the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Wildlife Research 36, 436–446.
| Comparison of methods to detect rare and cryptic species: a case study using the red fox (Vulpes vulpes).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson, P., Karl, B., Toft, R., Beggs, J., and Taylor, R. (1998). The role of introduced predators and competitors in the decline of kaka (Nestor meridionalis) populations in New Zealand. Biological Conservation 83, 175–185.
| The role of introduced predators and competitors in the decline of kaka (Nestor meridionalis) populations in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zuberogoitia, I., Zabala, J., and Martínez, J. A. (2006). Evaluation of sign surveys and trappability of American mink: management consequences. Folia Zoologica 55, 257–263.
