State-shifts of lion prey selection in the Kruger National Park
N. T. Maruping-Mzileni A B E , P. J. Funston C and S. M. Ferreira D
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Nature Conservation, Tshwane University of Technology, Staartsartillerie Street, Pretoria 0183, South Africa.
B Present address: Wildlife and Ecological Investments, Somerset West, Western Cape 7129, South Africa.
C Panthera, 8 West 40th Street, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10018, USA.
D Scientific Services, South African National Parks, Skukuza, Mpumalanga 1350, South Africa.
E Corresponding author. Email: nkabeng.mzileni@wei.org.za
Wildlife Research 44(1) 28-39 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR16090
Submitted: 7 August 2015 Accepted: 30 December 2016 Published: 9 March 2017
Abstract
Aims: Indicators of pending state-shifts carry value for policy makers. Predator–prey relations reflect key ecological processes that shape ecosystems. Variance in predator–prey relations may serve as a key indicator of future state-shifts.
Methods: Lion (Panthera leo) diet in the Kruger National Park was evaluated as such an indicator. Over the three-decade time span reviewed, variance in diet in relation to rainfall, prey abundance, management strategies and disease emergence were reviewed.
Key results: Rainfall patterns, both seasonal and cyclical, were identified as key drivers of predator–prey selection. However, the intensity of management in the form of artificial waterpoints overrode and confounded natural process. The results suggest that savanna systems are stable and punctuated by climatic events in the form of extreme above-average rainfall that temporarily destabilises the system. However, droughts are a cyclical part of the savanna system.
Conclusion: Lion prey selection did fluctuate with changing environmental conditions. Abrupt state shifts did occur; however, the ecosystem returned to a stable state.
Implications: State shifts in ecosystems pose key challenges to conservation managers. State shifts appear to be primarily associated with management interventions and environmental factors.
Additional keywords: environment, herbivores, management, predators, resilience, savanna.
References
Altizer, S., Harvell, D., and Friedle, E. (2003). Rapid evolutionary dynamics and disease threats to biodiversity. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18, 589–596.| Rapid evolutionary dynamics and disease threats to biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barnosky, A. D., Hadly, E. A., Bascompte, J., Berlow, E. L., Brown, J. H., Fortelius, M., Getz, W. M., Harte, J., Hastings, A., Marquet, P. A., Martinez, N. D., Mooers, A., Roopnarine, P., Vermeij, G., Williams, J. W., Gillespie, R., Kitzes, J., Marshall, C., Matzke, N., Mindell, D. P., Revilla, E., and Smith, A. B. (2012). Approaching a state shift in earth’s biosphere. Nature 486, 52–58.
| Approaching a state shift in earth’s biosphere.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xot1Cksbc%3D&md5=0aef4540295cb1e2103241d0dadfc62fCAS |
Biggs, R., Biggs, H. C., Dunne, T. T., Govender, N., and Potgieter, A. L. F. (2003). Experimental burn plot trail in the Kruger National Park: history, experimental design and suggestions for data analysis. Koedoe 46, 1–15.
| Experimental burn plot trail in the Kruger National Park: history, experimental design and suggestions for data analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Biggs, R., Carpenter, S. R., and Brock, W. A. (2009). Turning back from the brink: detecting an impending regime shift in time to avert it. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 106, 826–831.
| Turning back from the brink: detecting an impending regime shift in time to avert it.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXht1Kjsbw%3D&md5=1b45c0b445e59cf9000ef092e4c7c6b3CAS |
Boomker, J., Horak, I. G., and De Vos, V. (1989). Parasites of South African wildlife. IV. Helminths of kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros, in the Kruger National Park. The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 56, 111–121.
| 1:STN:280:DyaL1MzhsVOkuw%3D%3D&md5=93c14635b0d9aea9060ab7dffb6e5017CAS |
Brock, W. A., and Carpenter, S. R. (2006). Variance as a leading indicator of regime shift in ecosystems services. Ecology and Society 11, art 9.
| Variance as a leading indicator of regime shift in ecosystems services.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Carbone, C., Mace, G. M., Roberts, S. C., and Macdonald, D. W. (1999). Energetic constraints on the diet of terrestrial carnivores. Nature 402, 286–288.
| Energetic constraints on the diet of terrestrial carnivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXnvFSiu70%3D&md5=5b92ab85b21815e5b04fa3f649cb2b8dCAS |
Caron, A., Cross, P. C., and Du Toit, J. T. (2003). Ecological implications of the bovine tuberculosis in African buffalo herds. Ecological Applications 13, 1338–1345.
| Ecological implications of the bovine tuberculosis in African buffalo herds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chapin, F. S., Callaghan, T. V., Bergeron, Y., Fukuda, M., Johnstone, J. F., Juday, G., and Zimov, S. A. (2004). Global change and the boreal forest: thresholds, shifting states or gradual change? A Journal of the Human Environment 33, 361–365.
Coe, M. J., Cumming, D. H., and Phillipson, J. (1976). Biomass and production of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production. Oecologia 22, 341–354.
| Biomass and production of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cross, P. C., Heisey, D. M., Bowers, J. A., Hay, C. T., Wolhuter, J., Buss, P., Hofmeyr, M., Michel, A. L., Bengis, R. G., Bird, T. L. F., Du Toit, J. T., and Getz, W. M. (2009). Disease, predation and demography: assessing the impacts of bovine tuberculosis on African buffalo by monitoring at individual and population levels. Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 467–475.
| Disease, predation and demography: assessing the impacts of bovine tuberculosis on African buffalo by monitoring at individual and population levels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
De Boer, W. F., Vis, M. J. P., De Knegt, H. J., Rowles, C., Kohi, E. M., Van Langevelde, F., Peel, M., Pretorious, Y., Skidmore, A. K., and Slotow, De Boer, W. F., Vis, M. J. P., De Knegt, H. J., Rowles, C., Kohi, E. M., Van Langevelde, F., Peel, M., Pretorious, Y., Skidmore, A. K., and Slotow, (2010). Spatial distribution of lion kills determined by the water dependency of prey species. Journal of Mammalogy 91, 1280–1286.
| Spatial distribution of lion kills determined by the water dependency of prey species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
De Lisle, G. W., Bengis, R. G., Schmitt, S. M., and O’Brian, D. J. (2002). Tuberculosis in free- ranging wildlife: detection, diagnosis and management. Scientific and Technical Review: International Office of Epizootics 21, 317–334.
| 1:STN:280:DC%2BD383jslemuw%3D%3D&md5=bcd81c75ea361729b432df67e2a857efCAS |
Douglas, R. M. (1989). A new method of cross-sectioning hair of larger mammals. South African Journal of Wildlife Management 19, 73–76.
Du Toit, J. T. (1995). Sexual segregation in kudu: sex differences in competitive ability, predation risk or nutritional needs? South African Journal of Wildlife Research 25, 127–132.
Estes, R. D. (1992). ‘Behaviour Guide to African Mammals.’ (The University of California Press: Berkeley, CA.)
Ferreira, S. M., and Funston, P. J. (2010). Estimating lion population variables: prey and disease effects in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Wildlife Research 37, 194–206.
| Estimating lion population variables: prey and disease effects in Kruger National Park, South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ferreira, S. M., Maruping, N. T., Schoultz, D., and Smit, T. R. (2013). Effects of the number of people on efficient capture and sample collection: a lion case study. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 84, 131.
| Effects of the number of people on efficient capture and sample collection: a lion case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Folke, C., Carpenter, S., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Elmqvist, T., Gunderson, L., and Holling, C. S. (2004). Regime shifts, resilience and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 35, 557–581.
| Regime shifts, resilience and biodiversity in ecosystem management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Funston, P. J., and Mills, M. G. L. (2006). The influence of lion predation on the population dynamics of common large ungulates in the Kruger National Park. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 36, 9–22.
Funston, P. J., Mills, M. G. L., Biggs, H. C., and Richardson, P. R. K. (1998). Hunting by male lions: ecological influences and socio-ecological implications. Animal Behaviour 56, 1333–1345.
| Hunting by male lions: ecological influences and socio-ecological implications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC2sfgt1Squg%3D%3D&md5=7fc02e15ba2ac8c29829169e24db89deCAS |
Georgiadis, N., Hack, M., and Turpin, K. (2003). The influence of rainfall on zebra population dynamics: implications for management. Journal of Applied Ecology 40, 125–136.
| The influence of rainfall on zebra population dynamics: implications for management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gertenbach, W. P. D. (1980). Rainfall patterns in the Kruger National Park. Koedoe 23, 35–43.
Gunderson, L. H. (2000). Ecological resilience-in theory and application. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31, 425–439.
| Ecological resilience-in theory and application.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harrison, X. A., Blount, J. D., Inger, R., Norris, D. R., and Bearhop, S. (2011). Carry-over effects as drivers of fitness differences in animals. Journal of Animal Ecology 80, 4–18.
| Carry-over effects as drivers of fitness differences in animals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hastie, T. J., and Tibshirani, R. J. (Eds) (1990). ‘Generalized Additive Models.’ Monographs on Statistics and Applied Probability . (Chapman and Hall: London.)
Hayward, M. W., and Kerley, G. I. H. (2009). Fencing for conservation: restrictions of evolutionary potential or a riposte to threatening processes? Biological Conservation 142, 1–13.
| Fencing for conservation: restrictions of evolutionary potential or a riposte to threatening processes?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hayward, M. W., O’Brien, J., and Kerley, G. I. H. (2007). Carrying capacity of African predators: predictions and tests. Biological Conservation 139, 219–229.
| Carrying capacity of African predators: predictions and tests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hiscocks, K., and Bowland, A. E. (1989). Passage rates of prey components through cheetahs. Lammergeyer 40, 18–20.
Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4, 1–23.
| Resilience and stability of ecological systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hudson, P. J., Dobson, A. P., and Newborn, D. (1992). Do parasites make prey vulnerable to predation? Red grouse and parasites. Journal of Animal Ecology 61, 681–692.
| Do parasites make prey vulnerable to predation? Red grouse and parasites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ives, A. R., Gross, K., and Jansen, V. A. A. (2000). Periodic mortality events in predator–prey systems. Ecology 81, 3330–3340.
Jacobs, J. (1974). Quantitative measurement of food selection. Oecologia 14, 413–417.
Johnson, J. B., and Omland, K. S. (2004). Model selection in ecology and evolution. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19, 101–108.
| Model selection in ecology and evolution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keet, D. F., Kriek, N. P. J., Penrith, M., Michel, A., and Huchzermeyer, H. (1996). Tuberculosis in buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) in Kruger National Park: spread of the disease to other species. The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 63, 239–244.
| 1:STN:280:DyaK2s%2FnsFCksg%3D%3D&md5=11cab8c18b103726ecc10b5f39fe0d81CAS |
Keet, D. F., Kriek, N. P. J., Bengis, R. G., and Michel, A. L. (2001). Tuberculosis in kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) in the Kruger National Park. The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 68, 225–230.
| 1:STN:280:DC%2BD38%2Fkt1elug%3D%3D&md5=b12ecf79170632ca8476df59e0983fdfCAS |
Keet, D. F., Michel, A. L., Bengis, R. G., Becker, P., Van Dyk, D. S., Van Vuuren, M., Rutten, V. P. M. G., and Penzhorn, B. L. (2010). Intradermal tuberculin testing of wild African lions (Panthera leo) naturally exposed to infection with Mycobacterium bovis. Veterinary Microbiology 144, 384–391.
| Intradermal tuberculin testing of wild African lions (Panthera leo) naturally exposed to infection with Mycobacterium bovis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cjms1Cltg%3D%3D&md5=8ae503aba098ca4edf40fe02e8b8a71dCAS |
Kenkel, N. C., and Orlóci, L. (1986). Applying metric and nonmetric multidimensional scaling to ecological studies: some new results. Ecology 67, 919–928.
| Applying metric and nonmetric multidimensional scaling to ecological studies: some new results.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keogh, H. J. (1983). A photographical reference system of the microstructure of the hair of African bovids. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 13, 89–132.
Kindt, R., and Coe, R. (2005). ‘Tree Diversity Analysis. A Manual and Software for Common Statistical Methods for Ecological and Biodiversity Studies .’ pp. 123–138. (World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF): Nairobi, Kenya.)
Kruger, J. M., Reilly, B. K., and Whyte, I. J. (2008). Application of distance sampling to estimate population densities of large herbivores in Kruger National Park. Wildlife Research 35, 371–376.
| Application of distance sampling to estimate population densities of large herbivores in Kruger National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lafferty, K. D. (2009). Calling for an ecological approach to study climate change and infectious disease. Ecology 90, 932–933.
Michel, A. L., and Bengis, R. G. (2012). The African buffalo: a villain for interspecies spread of infectious diseases in southern Africa. The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 79, 1–15.
| The African buffalo: a villain for interspecies spread of infectious diseases in southern Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Michel, A. L., Bengis, R. G., Keet, D. F., Hofmeyr, M., De Klerk, L. M., Cross, P. C., Jolles, A. E., Cooper, D., Whyte, I. J., Buss, P., and Godfroid, J. (2006). Wildlife tuberculosis in South African conservation areas: implications and challenges. Veterinary Microbiology 112, 91–100.
| Wildlife tuberculosis in South African conservation areas: implications and challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD28%2FntlGisw%3D%3D&md5=7fc54e8bcc454bd35253efc368df5c58CAS |
Miller, M., Joubert, J., Mathebula, N., De Klerk, L. M., Lyashchenko, K. P., Bengis, R., Van Helden, P., Hofmeyr, M., Olea-Popelka, F., Greenwald, R., Esfandiari, J., and Buss, P. (2012). Detection of antibodies to tuberculosis antigens in free-ranging lions (Panthera leo) infected with Mycobacterium bovis in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43, 317–323.
| Detection of antibodies to tuberculosis antigens in free-ranging lions (Panthera leo) infected with Mycobacterium bovis in Kruger National Park, South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mills, M. G. L., Biggs, H. C., and Whyte, I. J. (1995). The relationship between rainfall, lion predation and population trends in African herbivores. Journal of Wildlife Research 22, 75–88.
| The relationship between rainfall, lion predation and population trends in African herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Molyneux, D. H., Ostfeld, R. S., Bernstein, A., and Chivian, E. (2008). Ecosystem disturbance, biodiversity loss, and human infectious disease. In ‘Sustaining life: how human health depends on biodiversity’ . (Eds E. Chivian and A. Bernstein.) pp. 287–323. (Oxford University Press: New York, NY.)
Morris, R. S., Pfeiffer, D. U., and Jackson, R. (1994). The epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis infections. Veterinary Microbiology 40, 153–177.
| The epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis infections.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK2czltlKhtA%3D%3D&md5=31c8373ad0909f8fec33bf5f29ed7a53CAS |
Ogutu, J. O., and Dublin, H. T. (2004). Spatial dynamics of lions and their prey along an environmental gradient. African Journal of Ecology 42, 8–22.
| Spatial dynamics of lions and their prey along an environmental gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Owen-Smith, N. (1996). Ecological guidelines for waterpoints in extensive protected areas. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 26, 107–112.
Owen-Smith, N., and Mills, M. G. L. (2006). Manifold interactive influences on the population dynamics of a multispecies ungulate assemblage. Ecological Monographs 76, 73–92.
| Manifold interactive influences on the population dynamics of a multispecies ungulate assemblage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Owen-Smith, N., Mason, D. R., and Ogutu, J. O. (2005). Correlates of survival rates for 10 African ungulate populations: density, rainfall and predation. Journal of Animal Ecology 74, 774–788.
| Correlates of survival rates for 10 African ungulate populations: density, rainfall and predation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Owen-Smith, N., Chirima, G. J., Macandza, V., and Le Roux, E. (2011). Shrinking sable antelope numbers in Kruger National Park: what is suppressing population recovery? Animal Conservation 15, 195–204.
| Shrinking sable antelope numbers in Kruger National Park: what is suppressing population recovery?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Packer, C., Hilborn, R., Mosser, A., Kissui, B., Borner, M., Hopcroft, G., Wilmshurst, J., Mduma, S., and Sinclair, R. E. (2005). Ecological change, group territoriality, and population dynamics in Serengeti lions. Science 307, 390–393.
| Ecological change, group territoriality, and population dynamics in Serengeti lions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXksFyhtA%3D%3D&md5=f2134a5d8f8afe66dfc5091617684581CAS |
Potts, D. L., Huxman, T. E., Enquist, B. J., Wetlzin, J. F., and Williams, D. G. (2006). Resilience and resisitance of ecosystem functional response to a precipitation pulse in a semi-arid grassland. Journal of Ecology 94, 23–30.
| Resilience and resisitance of ecosystem functional response to a precipitation pulse in a semi-arid grassland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Prins, H. H. T., and Weyerhaeuser, F. J. (1987). Epidemics in population of wild ruminants: anthrax and impala, rinderpest and buffalo in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. Oikos 49, 28–38.
| Epidemics in population of wild ruminants: anthrax and impala, rinderpest and buffalo in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Radloff, F. G. T., and Du Toit, J. T. (2004). Large predators and their prey in a southern African savanna: a predator’s size determines its prey size range. Journal of Animal Ecology 73, 410–423.
| Large predators and their prey in a southern African savanna: a predator’s size determines its prey size range.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Redfern, J. V., Grant, C. C., Gaylard, A., and Getz, W. M. (2005). Surface water availability and the management of herbivore distributions in an African savanna ecosystem. Journal of Arid Environments 63, 406–424.
| Surface water availability and the management of herbivore distributions in an African savanna ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Renwick, A. R., White, P. C. L., and Bengis, R. G. (2007). Bovine tuberculosis in southern African wildlife: a multi-species host–pathogen system. Epidemiology and Infection 135, 529–540.
| Bovine tuberculosis in southern African wildlife: a multi-species host–pathogen system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2s3jsVGjtg%3D%3D&md5=1db50ba910a8a4a2acee0c0731713c15CAS |
Rodwell, T. C., Whyte, I. J., and Boyce, W. M. (2001a). Evaluation of population effects of bovine tuberculosis in free-ranging African buffalo (Syncerus caffer). Journal of Mammalogy 82, 231–238.
| Evaluation of population effects of bovine tuberculosis in free-ranging African buffalo (Syncerus caffer).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rodwell, T. C., Kriek, N. P., Bengis, R. G., Whyte, I. J., Viljoen, P. C., De Vos, V., and Boyce, W. M. (2001b). Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in African buffalo at Kruger National Park. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 37, 258–264.
| Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in African buffalo at Kruger National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M3hvVOqsg%3D%3D&md5=537280a194b24a50c4998b1e38c4a68aCAS |
Roux, D. J., and Foxcroft, L. C. (2011). The development and application of strategic adaptive management within South African National Parks. Koedoe 53, 1049.
| The development and application of strategic adaptive management within South African National Parks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ryan, S. J., Knechtel, C. U., and Getz, W. M. (2006). Range and habitat selection of African buffalo in South Africa. The Journal of Wildlife Management 70, 764–776.
| Range and habitat selection of African buffalo in South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smit, I. J. P. (2011). Resources driving landscape-scale distribution patterns of grazers in an African savannah. Ecography 34, 67–74.
| Resources driving landscape-scale distribution patterns of grazers in an African savannah.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smit, I. P. J., and Grant, C. C. (2009). Managing surface-water in a large semi-arid savannah park: effects on grazer distribution patterns. Journal for Nature Conservation 17, 61–71.
| Managing surface-water in a large semi-arid savannah park: effects on grazer distribution patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smit, I. P. J., Grant, C. C., and Devereaux, B. J. (2007). Do artificial waterholes influence the way herbivores use the landscape? Herbivore distribution patterns around rivers and artificial surface water sources in a large African savannah park. Biological Conservation 136, 85–99.
| Do artificial waterholes influence the way herbivores use the landscape? Herbivore distribution patterns around rivers and artificial surface water sources in a large African savannah park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith, J. K., Lyon, L. J., Huff, M. H., Hooper, R. G., Telfer, E. S., Schreiner, D. S., and Smith, J. K. (2000). Wildland fire in ecosystems. Effects of fire on fauna. General technical report. Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service Washington, DC.
Smuts, G. L., Whyte, I. J., and Dearlove, T. W. (1977). A mass capture technique for lions. East African Wildlife Journal 15, 81–87.
| A mass capture technique for lions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tambling, C. J., Cameron, E. Z., Du Toit, J. T., and Getz, W. M. (2010). Methods for locating African lion kills using global positioning system movement data. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 549–556.
| Methods for locating African lion kills using global positioning system movement data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomas, L., Buckland, S. T., Rexstad, E. A., Laake, J. L., Strindberg, S., Hedley, S. L., Bishop, J. R. B., Marques, T. A., and Burnham, K. P. (2010). Distance software: design and analisys of distance sampling surveys for estimating population size. Journal of Applied Ecology 47, 5–14.
Tompkins, D. M., Dunn, A. M., Smith, M. J., and Telfer, S. (2011). Wildlife diseases: from individuals to ecosystems. Journal of Animal Ecology 80, 19–38.
| Wildlife diseases: from individuals to ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Trites, A. W., and Joy, R. (2005). Dietary analysis from faecal samples: how many scats are enough? Journal of Mammalogy 86, 704–712.
| Dietary analysis from faecal samples: how many scats are enough?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Trollope, W. S. W., Trollope, L. A., Biggs, H. C., Pienaar, D., and Potgieter, A. L. F. (1998). Long- term changes in the woody vegetation of the Kruger National Park, with special reference to the effects of elephant and fire. Koedoe 41, 103–112.
| Long- term changes in the woody vegetation of the Kruger National Park, with special reference to the effects of elephant and fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Wilgen, B. W., Biggs, H. C., and Potgeiter, A. L. F. (1998). Fire management and research in the Kruger National Park, with suggestions on the detection of thresholds of potential concern. Koedoe 41, 69–87.
Valeix, M., Fritz, H., Loveridge, A. J., Davidson, Z., Hunt, J. E., Murindagomo, F., and Macdonald, D. W. (2009). Does the risk of encountering lions influence African herbivore behaviour at waterholes? Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 63, 1483–1494.
| Does the risk of encountering lions influence African herbivore behaviour at waterholes?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vetter, S. (2009). Drought, change and resilience in South Africa’s arid and semi-arid rangelands. South African Journal of Science 105, 29–33.
| Drought, change and resilience in South Africa’s arid and semi-arid rangelands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vogel, C. (1994). (Mis)management of droughts in South Africa:past, present and future. South African Journal of Science 90, 4–6.
Whyte, I. J. (2001). Conservation management of the Kruger National Park elephant population. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Pretoria, South Africa.
