Changes in soil stress during repeated wheeling: A comparison of measured and simulated values
Mojtaba Naderi-Boldaji A E , Ali Kazemzadeh A , Abbas Hemmat B , Sajad Rostami A and Thomas Keller C DA Department of Mechanical Engineering of Biosystems, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord 88186-34141, Iran.
B Department of Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran.
C Agroscope, Department of Agroecology and Environment, Reckenholzstrasse 191, CH-8046, Zürich, Switzerland.
D Department of Soil and Environment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7014, SE-75007, Uppsala, Sweden.
E Corresponding author. Email: naderi.mojtaba@agr.sku.ac.ir; m.naderi@ut.ac.ir
Soil Research 56(2) 204-214 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR17093
Submitted: 26 March 2017 Accepted: 24 August 2017 Published: 10 November 2017
Abstract
Agricultural machinery traffic is one of the main causes of soil compaction in modern agriculture. Soils with weak inherent soil structural stability already have low bearing capacity and, when subjected to intensive tillage with a high frequency of traffic, are susceptible to severe soil compaction. In this study, repeated wheeling experiments were carried out on an Iranian clay soil prepared at two water contents (corresponding to 0.9 and 1.35 × water content at the lower plastic limit), two wheel loads (light and heavy rear wheel loads of a two-wheel-drive tractor) and two vehicle travel speeds (0.5 and 1 m s–1). The experiments tested whether the stress variations due to repeated wheeling are mainly due to variations in rut depth with repeated tyre passes and whether traffic at a higher travel speed has a smaller compaction effect. Mean normal stress was measured at three depths (0.15, 0.25 and 0.35 m) beneath the centre of tyres using cylindrical Bolling probes. Rut depth and cone index were measured after each pass. The results showed a linear increase in rut depth with consecutive tractor passes, with a greater increase on wet soil. However, bulk density increased more in dry soil than in wet soil at 0.15 and 0.25 m depth, most likely due to soil water content being close to the optimum Proctor water content. At 0.35 m depth, the bulk density increase was larger for wet soil, with obvious impacts of wheel load and travel speed (greater increase for slower speed and heavier wheel). Cone index generally increased with repeated tractor passes, with the greatest increase at 0.35 m depth in wet soil under heavy rear wheel traffic. Stress generally increased with increasing rut depth due to repeated wheeling. Reduced distance between the soil–tyre interface and the Bolling probes with increasing rut depth was investigated as a potential reason using analytical stress simulations, but could not fully explain the increase in stress with rut depth. Therefore, additional factors (e.g. soil strength) must have contributed to the stress increase with increasing number of tractor passes.
Additional keywords: Bolling probe, cone index, machinery traffic, soil compaction, soil stress.
References
Arvidsson J, Keller T (2007) Soil stress as affected by wheel load and tyre inflation pressure. Soil & Tillage Research 96, 284–291.| Soil stress as affected by wheel load and tyre inflation pressure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Arvidsson J, Trautner A, van den Akker JJH, Schjønning P (2001) Subsoil compaction caused by heavy sugarbeet harvesters in southern Sweden: II. Soil displacement during wheeling and model computations of compaction. Soil & Tillage Research 60, 79–89.
| Subsoil compaction caused by heavy sugarbeet harvesters in southern Sweden: II. Soil displacement during wheeling and model computations of compaction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
ASTM D4318–10e1, Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010, www.astm.org
ASTM D698–12e2, Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort (12400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2012, www.astm.org
Batey T (2009) Soil compaction and soil management–a review. Soil Use and Management 25, 335–345.
| Soil compaction and soil management–a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Berli M, Eggers CG, Accorsi ML, Or D (2006) Theoretical analysis of fluid inclusion for in situ soil stress and deformation measurements. Soil Science Society of America Journal 70, 1441–1452.
| Theoretical analysis of fluid inclusion for in situ soil stress and deformation measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xpsl2lsrg%3D&md5=3d64d09b17ab687e8760e20031de153cCAS |
Bolling I (1987) Bodenverdichtung und Triebkraftverhalten bei Reifen: Neue Mess- und Rechenmethoden. PhD Thesis. Technische Universität Munchen, Germany.
Botta GF, Jorajuria D, Draghi LM (2002) Influence of the axle load, tyre size and configuration on the compaction of a freshly tilled clayey soil. Journal of Terramechanics 39, 47–54.
| Influence of the axle load, tyre size and configuration on the compaction of a freshly tilled clayey soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Botta GF, Tolon Becerra A, Bellora Tourn F (2009) Effect of the number of tractor passes on soil rut depth and compaction in two tillage regimes. Soil & Tillage Research 103, 381–386.
| Effect of the number of tractor passes on soil rut depth and compaction in two tillage regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boussinesq J (1885) ‘Application des Potentiels a‘ le’tudede de l’e’quilibre et du Mouvement des Solides E’lastiques.’ Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 30 pp.
British Standard 1377 (1975) Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purpose. British Standards Institute: London.
Eggers CG, Berli M, Accorsi ML, Or D (2006) Deformation and permeability of aggregated soft earth materials. Journal of Geophysical Research 111, B10204
| Deformation and permeability of aggregated soft earth materials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fröhlich OK (1934) Druckverteilung im Baugrunde. Springer-Verlag, Vienna.
Håkansson I (2005) Machinery-induced compaction of arable soils. Incidence- Consequences-Counter-Measures. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Soil Sciences. Reports from the division of soil management No. 109.
Hamza MA, Anderson WK (2005) Soil compaction in cropping systems. A review of the nature, causes and possible solutions. Soil & Tillage Research 82, 121–145.
| Soil compaction in cropping systems. A review of the nature, causes and possible solutions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Horn R, Blackwell PS, White R (1989) The effect of speed of wheeling on soil stresses, rut depth and soil physical properties in an ameliorated transitional red-brown earth. Soil & Tillage Research 13, 353–364.
| The effect of speed of wheeling on soil stresses, rut depth and soil physical properties in an ameliorated transitional red-brown earth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Horn R, Wernerz D, Baumgartl T, Winterotz C (1994) Effect of wheeling on stress distribution and changes in the macro- and microstructure of a cambic phaeozem derived from loess. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 157, 433–440.
Horn R, Graesle W, Kuehner S (1996) Volumetric stress and strain distribution in soils - theory and experimental data. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 159, 137–142.
Horn R, Way T, Rostek J (2003) Effect of repeated tractor wheeling on stress/strain properties and consequences on physical properties in structured arable soils. Soil & Tillage Research 73, 101–106.
| Effect of repeated tractor wheeling on stress/strain properties and consequences on physical properties in structured arable soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huang PM, Li Y, Sumner ME (2012) ‘Handbook of Soil Sciences: Properties and Processes’, 2nd edn. (CRC Press, Aban). 1442 pages.
Karczewski T (1978) The influence of speed on soil compaction by the wheels of agricultural machinery. Zeszyty Problemowe Postepow Nauk Rolniczych 201, 69–74.
Keller T, Lamandé M (2010) Challenges in the development of analytical soil compaction models. Soil & Tillage Research 111, 54–64.
| Challenges in the development of analytical soil compaction models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keller T, Defossez P, Weisskopf P, Arvidsson J, Richard G (2007) SoilFlex: a model for prediction of soil stresses and soil compaction due to agricultural field traffic including a synthesis of analytical approaches. Soil & Tillage Research 93, 391–411.
| SoilFlex: a model for prediction of soil stresses and soil compaction due to agricultural field traffic including a synthesis of analytical approaches.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keller T, Ruiz S, Stettler M, Berli M (2016) Determining soil stress beneath a tyre: measurements and simulations. Soil Science Society of America Journal 80, 541–553.
| Determining soil stress beneath a tyre: measurements and simulations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhvV2mtLnP&md5=c5d463d33384777e0b3b983ed3262490CAS |
Koolen AJ, Kuipers H (1983) ‘Agricultural Soil Mechanics’. (Springer: Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo)
Lamandé M, Schjønning P (2011) Transmission of vertical stress in a real soil profile. Part III: effect of soil water content. Soil & Tillage Research 114, 78–85.
| Transmission of vertical stress in a real soil profile. Part III: effect of soil water content.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lipiec J, Szustak S, Tarkiewicz S (1992) Soil compaction: responses of soil physical properties and crop growth. Zeszyty Problemowe Poste˛pów Nauk Rolniczych 398, 113–117.
Misiewicz PA, Richards TE, Blackburn K, Godwin RJ (2016) Comparison of methods for estimating the carcass stiffness of agricultural tyres on hard surfaces. Biosystems Engineering 147, 183–192.
| Comparison of methods for estimating the carcass stiffness of agricultural tyres on hard surfaces.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mosaddeghi MR, Hajabbasi MA, Hemmat A, Afyuni M (2000) Soil compactibility as affected by soil moisture content and farmyard manure in central Iran. Soil & Tillage Research 55, 87–97.
| Soil compactibility as affected by soil moisture content and farmyard manure in central Iran.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Naderi-Boldaji M, Alimardani R, Hemmat A, Sharifi A, Keyhani A, Tekeste MZ, Keller T (2014) 3D finite element simulation of a single-tip horizontal penetrometer–soil interaction: II. Soil bin verification of the model in a clay-loam soil. Soil & Tillage Research 144, 211–219.
| 3D finite element simulation of a single-tip horizontal penetrometer–soil interaction: II. Soil bin verification of the model in a clay-loam soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Or D, Ghezzehei TA (2002) Modeling post-tillage soil structural dynamics: a review. Soil & Tillage Research 64, 41–59.
| Modeling post-tillage soil structural dynamics: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peth S, Horn R (2006) The mechanical behavior of structured and homogenized soil under repeated loading. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 169, 401–410.
| The mechanical behavior of structured and homogenized soil under repeated loading.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XmsVSnsr8%3D&md5=33acdfe43f179d1fc6239f42c0b9f045CAS |
Pytka J (2005) Effects of repeated rolling of agricultural tractors on soil stress and deformation state in sand and loess. Soil & Tillage Research 82, 77–88.
| Effects of repeated rolling of agricultural tractors on soil stress and deformation state in sand and loess.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pytka J (2012) Dynamics of wheel–soil systems: a soil stress and deformation-based approach. (CRC press, Taylor & Francis: Boca Raton, London, NewYork)
Richards BG, Baumgartl T, Horn R, Grasle W (1997) Modelling the effects of repeated wheel loads on soil profiles. International Agrophysics 11, 177–187.
Riggert R, Fleige F, Kietz B, Gaertig T, Horn R (2016) Stress distribution under forestry machinery and consequences for soil stability. Soil Science Society of America Journal 80, 38–47.
| Stress distribution under forestry machinery and consequences for soil stability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtFylurnP&md5=1c5984be0ebea89da0e83719b9164c8aCAS |
Schulte EE, Hopkins BG (1996) Estimation of soil organic matter by weight Organic Matter (LOI) loss-on-ignition. In ‘Soil Organic Matter: Analysis and Interpretation’. (Eds FR Magdoff, MA Tabatabai, EA Hanlon Jr.) pp. 21–31. (Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WI)
Semmel H (1993) Auswirkungen kontrollierter Bodenbelastungen auf das Druckfortpflanzungsverhalten und physikalisch-mechanische Kenngrössen von Ackerböden. PhD Thesis. Schriftenreihe des Instituts für Pflanzenernnährung und Bodenkunde, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Germany.
Söhne W (1953) Druckverteilung im Boden und Bodenverformung unter Schlepperreifen. Grundlagen der Landtechnik 5, 49–63.
Way TR, Bailey AC, Raper RL, Burt EC (1995) Tyre lug height effect on soil stresses and bulk density. Transactions of the ASAE. American Society of Agricultural Engineers 38, 669–674.
| Tyre lug height effect on soil stresses and bulk density.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wiermann C, Way TR, Horn R, Bailey AC, Burt EC (1999) Effect of various dynamic loads on stress and strain behavior of a Norfolk sandy loam. Soil & Tillage Research 50, 127–135.
| Effect of various dynamic loads on stress and strain behavior of a Norfolk sandy loam.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wong JY (2008) Theory of Ground Vehicles. John Wiley & Sons, INC.
